The Elder Edda

Gísli Sigurðsson, ‘On the Classification of Eddic Heroic Poetry in View of the Oral Theory’, in Poetry in the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Teresa Pàroli, Seventh International Saga Conference, Atti del XII Congresso internazionale di studi sull’alto medioevo (Spoleto, 1990), pp. 245–56

Glendinning, Robert J., and Haraldur Bessason, eds, Edda: A Collection of Essays, University of Manitoba Icelandic Studies 4 (Winnipeg, 1983)

Gould, Chester Nathan, ‘Dwarf-Names: A Study in Old Icelandic Religion’, Publication of the Modern Language Association 44 (1929), pp. 939–67

Gunnell, Terry, The Origins of Drama in Scandinavia (Cambridge, 1995)

Hall, Alaric, Elves in Anglo-Saxon England: Matters of Belief, Health, Gender and Identity, Anglo-Saxon Studies 8 (Woodbridge, 2007; repr. 2009)

Hallberg, Peter, ‘Elements of Myth in the Heroic Lays of the Poetic Edda’, in German Dialects: Linguistic and Philological Investigations, ed. Bela Brogyanyi and Thomas Krömmelbein (Amsterdam, 1986), pp. 213–47

—, Old Icelandic Poetry: Eddic Lay and Skaldic Verse, trans. Paul Schach and Sonja Lindgrenson (Lincoln, NE, 1975)

Harris, Joseph, ‘Eddic Poetry’, in Old Norse–Icelandic Literature: A Critical Guide, ed. Carol J. Clover and John Lindow, Islandica 45 (Ithaca, NY, 1985), pp. 157–96

—, ‘Eddic Poetry as Oral Poetry: The Evidence of Parallel Passages in the Helgi Poems for Questions of Composition and Performance’, in Edda: A Collection of Essays, ed. Glendinning and Haraldur Bessason, pp. 208–40

—, ‘The Performance of Eddic Poetry: A Retrospective’, in The Oral Epic: Performance and Music, ed. Karl Reichl, Intercultural Music Studies 12 (Berlin, 2000)

Haugen, Einar, ‘The Edda as Ritual: Odin and his Masks’, in Edda: A Collection of Essays ed. Glendinning and Haraldur Bessason, pp. 3–24

Jackson, Elizabeth, ‘Eddic Listing Techniques and the Coherence of Rúnatal’, Alvíssmál 5 (1995), pp. 81–106

Jónas Kristjánsson, Eddas and Sagas: Iceland’s Medieval Literature (Reykjavik, 1988)

—, ‘Stages in the Composition of Eddic Poetry’, in Poetry in the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Teresa Pàroli, Seventh International Saga Conference, Atti del XII Congresso internazionale di studi sull’alto medioevo (Spoleto, 1990), pp. 201–18

Kellogg, Robert L., ‘Literacy and Orality in the Poetic Edda’, in Vox intexta: Orality and Textuality in the Middle Ages, ed. A. N. Doane and Carol Braun Pasternack (Madison, WI, 1991), pp. 89–101

Lindow, John, ‘Mythology and Mythography’, in Old Norse–Icelandic Literature: A Critical Guide, ed. Carol J. Clover and John Lindow, Islandica 45 (Ithaca, NY, 1985), pp. 21–67

—, Scandinavian Mythology: An Annotated Bibliography, Garland Folklore Bibliographies 13 (New York and London, 1988)

McKinnell, John, Both One and Many: Essays on Change and Variety in Late Norse Heathenism (Rome, 1994)

—, Essays on Eddic Poetry, ed. Donata Kick, Toronto Old Norse–Icelandic Studies (Toronto, 2011)

—, Meeting the Other in Norse Myth and Legend (Cambridge, 2005)

—, David Ashurst and Donata Kick, eds, The Fantastic in Old Norse/Icelandic Literature: Sagas and the British Isles, 2 vols (Durham, 2006)

Meletinskij, Eleazar M., ‘Scandinavian Mythology as a System of Oppositions’, in Patterns in Oral Literature, ed. Dimitri Segal and Heda Jason (The Hague, 1977), pp. 252–60

Motz, Lotte, The Beauty and the Hag: Female Figures of Germanic Faith and Myth, Philologica Germanica 15 (Vienna, 1993)

—, The Wise One of the Mountain: Form, Function, and Significance of the Subterranean Smith: A Study in Folklore, Göppinger Arbeiten zur Germanistik 379 (Göppingen, 1983)

Nerman, Birger, The Poetic Edda in the Light of Archaeology (Coventry, 1934)

Page, R. I., Chronicles of the Vikings: Records, Memorials and Myths (London, 1995)

Philpotts, Bertha S., The Elder Edda and Ancient Scandinavian Drama (Cambridge, 1920)

Quinn, Judy, ‘Editing the Edda: The Case of Völuspá’, Scripta Islandica 51 (2001), pp. 69–92

—, ‘The Naming of Eddic Poems’, Parergon 8:2 (1990), pp. 97–115

—, ‘Verseform and Voice in Eddic Poems: The Discourses of Fáfnismál’, Arkiv för nordisk filologi 107 (1992), pp. 100–30

—, Kate Heslop and Tarrin Wills, eds, Learning and Understanding in the Old Norse World: Essays in Honour of Margaret Clunies Ross, Medievala Texts and Cultures of Northern Europe 18 (Turnhout, 2007)

Ross, Margaret Clunies, A History of Old Norse Poetry and Poetics (Woodbridge, 2005)

—, ed., Old Norse Myths, Literature, and Society (Odense, 2003)

—, Prolonged Echoes: Old Norse Myths in Medieval Northern Society. Volume I: The Myths; Volume II: The Reception of Norse Myths in Medieval Iceland, The Viking Collection 7, 10 (Odense, 1994, 1998)

Shippey, Tom, ed., The Shadow-Walkers: Jacob Grimm’s Mythology of the Monstrous (Tempe, AZ, 2005)

Sims-Williams, Patrick, The Iron House in Ireland, H. M. Chadwick Memorial Lecture 16 (Cambridge, 2005)

Sørensen, Preben Meulengracht, The Unmanly Man: Concepts of Sexual Defamation in Early Northern Society, trans. Joan Turville-Petre, The Viking Collection 1 (Odense, 1983)

Steblin-Kamenskij, M. I., Myth: The Icelandic Sagas and Eddas, trans. Mary P. Coote (Ann Arbor, MI, 1982)

Turville-Petre, E. O. G., Myth and Religion of the North: The Religion of Ancient Scandinavia (London, 1964)

Ulvestad, Bjarne, ‘How Old are the Mythological Eddic Poems?’, Scandinavian Studies 26 (1954), pp. 49–69

Vries, Jan de, Heroic Song and Heroic Legend, trans. B. J. Timmer (London, 1963)

THE ELDER EDDA

Andy Orchard was an undergraduate at both Queens’ College, Cambridge (where he read Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Celtic) and Exeter College, Oxford (where he read English); he took his PhD at Cambridge, and after a brief period as Junior Research Fellow at St John’s College, Oxford, returned to Emmanuel College, Cambridge, where he taught Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Celtic from 1991 to 2000. Since 2000 he has been Professor of English and Medieval Studies in the University of Toronto, and since 2007 Provost and Vice Chancellor of Trinity College in the University of Toronto. He is the author of The Poetic Art of Aldhelm (1994), Pride and Prodigies: Studies in the Monsters of the ‘Beowulf’ – Manuscript (2nd edition, 2003), The Cassell Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend (3rd edition, 2002) and A Critical Companion to ‘Beowulf’ (2nd edition, 2005), as well as editor and co-editor or member of the editorial board of several collections, scholarly journals and academic series, including Anglo-Saxon England, Journal of Medieval Latin, Notes and Queries, Publications of the Dictionary of Old English, Toronto Studies in Anglo-Saxon England and Toronto Old Norse–Icelandic Series. He has published widely in the fields of Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Celtic studies, as well as in Medieval Latin. Iceland and Icelandic literature have always been a great passion; for many years he has walked and travelled throughout Iceland, and for several years was privileged to lead walking tours up in the mountains for the legendary Dick Phillips. He lives in Toronto, but continues to escape to Iceland as often as he can.

The Elder Edda

Völuspá: The prophecy of the seeress

1. A hearing I ask of all holy offspring,

the higher and lower of Heimdall’s brood.

Do you want me, Corpse-father, to tally up well

[Corpse-father Odin]

ancient tales of folk, from the first I recall?

2. I recall those giants, born early on,

who long ago brought me up;

nine worlds I recall, nine wood-dwelling witches,

the famed tree of fate down under the earth.

3. It was early in ages when Ymir made his home,

[Ymir ‘Groaner’, primordial giant]

there was neither sand nor sea, nor cooling waves;

no earth to be found, nor heaven above:

a gulf beguiling, nor grass anywhere.

4. Before Bur’s sons brought up the lands, they who moulded famed middle-earth;

[Bur’s sons Odin and his brothers Vili and Vé]

Sun shone from the south on the stones of the hall:

then the ground grew with the leek’s green growth.

5. Sun, Moon’s escort, flung from the south

her right arm round heaven’s rim.

Sun did not know where she had a hall;

the stars knew not where they had stations,

Moon did not know what might he had.

6. Then all the powers went to their thrones of destiny,

high-holy gods, and deliberated this:

to Night and her children they gave their names:

Morning they called one, another Mid-day,

Afternoon and Evening, to tally up the years.

7. The Æsir assembled on Action-field,

they who built high-timbered temples and altars;

they set down forges, fashioned treasures,

shaped tongs, and fabricated tools.

8. They played board-games in the meadow: they made merry;

in no way for them was there want of gold

until there came three ogres’ daughters,

vastly mighty, from Giants’ Domain.

[DVERGATAL (‘THE TALLY OF DWARFS’):]

9. Then all the powers went to their thrones of destiny,

high-holy gods, and deliberated this:

who should shape the troop of dwarfs,

from Brimir’s blood, from Bláin’s limbs.

10. There was Mótsognir made most esteemed

of all the dwarfs, and Durin next;

many man-shaped forms they made,

dwarfs from earth, as Durin told:

11. New-moon, Moon-wane, North and South,

East and West, All-stealer, Dawdler,

Trembler, Grumbler, Tubby, Old Salt,

Friend and Friendly, Great-grandpa, Mead-wolf.

12. Swig and Wand-elf, Wind-elf, Urge,

Knowing and Daring, Spurt, Wise and Bright,

Corpse and New-counsel – now the dwarfs –

Regin and Cunning-counsel – have I reckoned aright.

13. Filer, Wedger, New-found, Needler,

Handle, Slogger, Craftsman, Waster,

Swift, Horn-bearer, Famed and Puddle,

Mud-plain, Warrior, Oaken-shield.

14. Time it is to reckon back to Praiser,

the dwarfs in Dawdler’s band for the children of men:

those who sought from halls of stone

the dwellings of Mud-plains on Soily-flats.

15. There was Dripper and Eager-for-strife,

Grey, Mound-treader, Shelter-plain, Glowing,

Artisan, Stainer, Crooked-Finn, Great-grandpa.

16. Elf and Yngvi, Oaken-shield,

Much-wise and Frosty, Finn and Beguiler;

there will remain in memory while the world lasts,

the lineage of Praiser, properly listed.

[RETURN TO VÖLUSPÁ:]

17. Until there came three from that company,

powerful and pleasant Æsir to a house.

They found on land, lacking vigour,

Ash and Embla, free of fate.

18. Breath they had not, energy they held not,

no warmth, nor motion, nor healthy looks;

breath gave Odin, energy gave Hœnir,

warmth gave Lódur, and healthy looks.

19. An ash I know stands, Yggdrasil by name,

a high tree, drenched with bright white mud;

from there come the dews that drop in the dales,

it always stands green over Destiny’s well.

20. From there come maidens, knowing much,

three from the lake that stands under the tree:

Destiny they called one, Becoming the second

– they carved on wood-tablets – Shall-be the third;

laws they laid down, lives they chose

for the children of mankind, the fates of men.

21. She remembers the war, the first in the world,

when they stabbed at Gold-draught with many spears,

and in the hall of the High One they burned her body.

[High One Odin]

Three times they burned the one thrice-born,

often, over again; yet she lives still.

22. They called her Brightness, when she came to their homes,

a witch who could foretell; she knew the skill of wands,

she made magic where she could, made magic in a trance;

she was always a delight to a wicked woman.

23. Then all the powers went to their thrones of destiny,

high-holy gods, and deliberated this:

whether the Æsir were obliged to render tribute,

and all the gods were obliged to pay the price.

24. Odin flung his spear, cast it into the host,

still that was the war, the first in the world;

the shield-wall was shattered of the fortress of the Æsir,

[fortress of the Æsir Ásgard]

the Vanir with war-spells trampled the battlefield.

25. Then all the powers went to their thrones of destiny,

high-holy gods, and deliberated this:

who had mixed the whole sky with mischief

or given Ód’s girl to giants’ kin.

[Ód’s girl Freyja]

26. Thor alone threw blows there, bursting with rage

– he seldom sits still when he hears such things said –

oaths were trampled, words and assurances,

every binding pledge that had passed between.

27. She knows that Heimdall’s hearing is hidden

under that brilliant holy tree;

she sees a river surge with a muddy stream

from Corpse-father’s pledge: do you know yet, or what?

28. Alone she sat out, when the aged one came,

[aged one Odin]

the Dread One of the Æsir, and she looked in his eye:

[Dread One of the Æsir Odin]

‘What do you ask me? Why do you try me?

I know it all, Odin: where you hid your eye,

in the much-famed fountain of Mímir;

Mímir sips mead every morning

from Corpse-father’s pledge: do you know yet, or what?’

29. War-father picked for her rings and circlets:

[War-father Odin]

he had back wise tidings and wands of prophecy;

she saw widely and widely beyond, over every world.

30. She saw valkyries come from widely beyond,

ready to ride to the people of the gods.

Shall-be bore one shield, Brandisher another,

Battle, War, Wand-maid and Spear-brandisher:

now are reckoned War-lord’s ladies,

[War-lord Odin]

ready to ride over earth, valkyries.

31. I saw for Baldr, the blood-stained god,

Odin’s son, his fate fully settled;

there stood blooming, above the ground,

meagre, mighty beautiful: mistletoe.

32. From that plant, that seemed so slender,

Höd learned to shoot a dangerous dart of harm;

Baldr’s brother was quickly born:

that son of Odin learned to kill one night old.

33. He never washed hands nor combed his head,

till he put to the pyre Baldr’s foe;

but Frigg lamented in Fen-halls,

for Slain-hall’s woe: do you know yet, or what?

[34. Then Váli’s war-bands were woven

[Váli Loki’s son]

– rather hard were the bonds – out of his own guts.]

35. She saw a prisoner prostrate under Kettle-grove,

in the likeness of Loki, ever eager for harm;

there sits Sigyn, over her husband,

but she feels little glee: do you know yet, or what?

36. A river flows from the East through venom-valleys

with knives and swords: Stern is its name.

37. There stood to the north, on Moon-wane-plains,

a hall of gold, of Sindri’s line;

[Sindri ‘Sparky’, a dwarf?]

a second stood, on Never-cooled,

the beer-hall of a giant, the one called Brimir.

38. A hall she saw standing far from the sun,

on Dead-body-strands: its doors face north;

venom-drops flowed in through the roof-holes:

that hall is plaited from serpents’ spines.

39. She saw there wading through heavy currents,

men false-sworn and murderous men,

and those who gull another’s faithfulest girl;

there Spite-striker sucks the bodies of the dead

– a wolf tore men – do you know yet, or what?

40. East sat an old crone in Iron-wood,

and suckled there the seed of Fenrir:

from them all shall emerge a certain one,

[seed of Fenrir monstrous wolves]

a grabber of the moon in monstrous guise.

41. He is filled with the life-blood of doomed men,

reddens the powers’ dwellings with ruddy gore;

the sun-beams turn black the following summer,

all weather woeful: do you know yet, or what?

42. There sat on a grave-mound and plucked at a harp,

the giantess’s herdsman, happy Eggthér;

over him there crowed in Gallows-wood,

a bright-red cock, whose name is Much-wise.

43. Over the Æsir there crowed Golden-comb,

who wakes the warriors at Host-father’s home;

another crows beneath the earth,

a soot-red cock in the halls of Hel.

44. Garm howls loud before Looming-cave,

the bond will break, and the ravenous one run;

much lore she knows, I see further ahead,

of the powers’ fate, implacable, of the victory-gods.

45. Brothers will struggle and slaughter each other,

and sisters’ sons spoil kinship’s bonds.

It’s hard on earth: great whoredom;

axe-age, blade-age, shields are split;

wind-age, wolf-age, before the world crumbles:

no one shall spare another.

46. Mím’s sons sport, the wood of destiny is kindled

[wood of destiny Yggdrasil]

at the ancient Sounding-horn.

Heimdall blows loud, the horn is aloft,

Odin speaks with Mím’s head.

47. The standing ash of Yggdrasil shudders,

the aged tree groans, and the giant breaks free.

All are afraid on the paths of Hel,

before Surt’s kin swallows it up.

[Surt fire-giant]

48. What’s with the Æsir? What’s with the elves?

All Giants’ Domain groans, the Æsir hold council,

the dwarfs murmur before their stone doors,

lords of the cliff-wall: do you know yet, or what?

49. Garm now howls loud before Looming-cave,

the bond will break, and the ravenous one run;

much lore she knows, I see further ahead,

of the powers’ fate, implacable, of the victory-gods.

50. Hrym drives from the East, holds his shield ahead,

[Hrym giant]

Great-wand writhes in giant-wrath;

[Great-wand World-serpent]

the serpent strikes waves, the eagle screams,

pale-beaked rips bodies, Nail-boat breaks free.

51. A vessel journeys from the East, Muspell’s troops will come,

over the waters, while Loki steers.

All the monstrous offspring accompany the ravenous one,

The brother of Býleist is with them on the trip.

[brother of Býleist Loki]

52. Surt comes from the South with what damages branches,

[damages branches fire]

there shines from his sword the sun of corpse-gods;

rock-cliffs clash, troll-wives crash,

warriors tread Hel-roads, and heaven is rent.

53. Then there comes for Hlín a second sorrow,

[Hlín Frigg]

when Odin goes to fight the wolf

and Beli’s bright bane against Surt:

[Beli’s bane Frey]

then’s when Frigg’s beloved must fall.

[54. Then there comes the great son of Victory-father,

[Victory-father Odin]

Vídar, to fight against the slaughtering beast;

[slaughtering beast Fenrir]

with his hand he sends his sword to the heart

of Hvedrung’s son: then his father is avenged.]

[Hvedrung Loki]

55. The earth’s girdle gapes over heaven,

the dread serpent’s jaws yawn on high,

[ earth’s girdle World-serpent ]

Odin’s son must meet the serpent,

[Odin’s son Thor]

when the wolf is dead, and Vídar’s kin.

[Vídar’s kin Odin]

56. Then there comes the famous offspring of Hlödyn,

[offspring of Hlödyn Thor]

Odin’s son goes to fight the serpent;

the defender of middle-earth strikes in his wrath;

[defender of middle-earth Thor]

– all warriors must abandon their homesteads –

he goes nine paces, the son of Fjörgyn,

[son of Fjörgyn Thor]

spent, from the snake that fears no spite.

57. The sun turns black, land sinks into sea;

the bright stars scatter from the sky.

Flame flickers up against the world-tree;

fire flies high against heaven itself.

58. Garm now howls loud before Looming-cave,

the bond will break, and the ravenous one run;

much lore she knows, I see further ahead,

of the powers’ fate, implacable, of the victory-gods.

59. She sees rising up a second time

the earth from the ocean, ever-green;

the cataracts tumble, an eagle flies above,

hunting fish along the fell.

60. The Æsir come together on Action-field,

and pass judgement on the powerful earth-coil,

[earth-coil World-serpent]

and commemorate there the mighty events,

and the ancient runes of Potent-god.

[Potent-god Odin]

61. Afterwards there will be found, wondrous,

golden gaming-pieces in the grass,

those which in ancient days they had owned.

62. All unsown the fields will grow,

all harm will be healed, Baldr will come;

Höd and Baldr will inhabit Hropt’s victory-halls,

[Hropt Odin]

sanctuaries of the slain-gods: do you know yet, or what?

63. Then Hœnir shall choose the wooden lots,

and the sons of two brothers build dwellings

[two brothers Vili and Vé? or Höd and Baldr?]

in the wide wind-home: do you know yet, or what?

64. She sees a hall standing, more beautiful than the sun,

better than gold, at Gimlé.

Virtuous folk shall live there,

and enjoy pleasure the live-long day.

[65. Then there comes the mighty one down from above,

the strong one, who governs everything, to powerfulness.]

66. Then there comes there the dark dragon flying,

the glittering snake up from Moon-wane-hills,

it bears in its wings – and flies over the plain –

dead bodies: Spite-striker; now she must sink.

Alv	Alvíssmál: The lay of All-wise
Atk	Atlakvida: Atli’s song
Atm	Atlamál in grœnlenzku: The Greenlandic lay of Atli
Bdr	Baldrs draumar: Baldr’s dreams
Beo	Beowulf
Brot	Brot af Sigurdarkvidu: A fragment of the song of Sigurd
CR	Codex Regius
Fáf	Fáfnismál: Fáfnir’s lay
Ghv	Gudrúnarhvöt: Gudrún’s inciting
Gkv I	Gudrúnarkvida in fyrsta: The first song of Gudrún
Gkv II	Gudrúnarkvida in forna: The ancient song of Gudrún
Gkv III	Gudrúnarkvida in thridja: The third song of Gudrún
Grím	Grímnismál: The lay of Grímnir
Gríp	Grípisspá: Grípir’s prophecy
Grott	Grottasöngr: Grotti’s chanting
Gylf	Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning
Ham	Hamdismál: Hamdir’s lay
Hár	Hárbardsljód: Grey-beard’s poem
Háv	Hávamál: The lay of the High One
Hel	Helreid Brynhildar: Brynhild’s Hel-ride
HH I	Helgakvida Hundingsbana in fyrsta: The first song of Helgi, the slayer of Hunding
HH II	Helgakvida Hundingsbana önnur: The second song of Helgi, the slayer of Hunding
HHj	Helgakvida Hjörvardssonar: The song of Helgi Hjörvardsson
Hym	Hymiskvida: The song of Hymir
Hynd	Hyndluljód: Hyndla’s poem
Lok	Lokasenna: Loki’s home-truths
Odd	Oddrúnargrátr: Oddrún’s lament
PrÆg	Prose Frá Ægi ok godum: About Ægir and the gods
PrAt	Prose Daudi Atla: The death of Atli
PrBorg	Prose Frá Borgnýju ok Oddrúnu: About Borgný and Oddrún
PrBryn	Prose Brynhildr reid helveg: Brynhild rides the way to Hel
PrDráp	Prose Dráp Niflunga: The killing of the Niflungs
PrFáf	Prose Frá dauda Fáfnis: About Fáfnir’s death
PrGud	Prose Frá Gudrúnu: About Gudrún
PrHj	Prose Frá Hjörvardi ok Sigrlinn: About Hjörvard and Sigrlinn
PrLok	Prose Frá Loka: About Loki
PrSig	Prose Frá dauda Sigurdar: About Sigurd’s death
PrSin	Prose Frá dauda Sinfjötla: About Sinfjötli’s death
PrVöls	Prose Frá Völsungum: About the Völsungs
PrVölund	Prose Frá Völundi: About Völund
Reg	Reginsmál: Regin’s lay
Ríg	Rígsthula: Ríg’s list
Sigrd	Sigrdrífumál: Sigrdrifa’s lay
Sigsk	Sigurdarkvida in skamma: The short song of Sigurd
Skáld	Snorri Sturluson, Skáldskaparmál
Skírn	För Skírnis: Skírnir’s journey
Thrym	Thrymskvida: The song of Thrym
Vaf	Vafthrúdnismál: The lay of Vafthrúdnir
Vkv	Völundarkvida: The song of Völund
Vsaga	Völsunga saga: The saga of the Völsungs
Vsp	Völuspá: The prophecy of the seeress
Yngsaga	Snorri Sturluson, Ynglinga saga

Abbreviations of Texts in the Notes and Index

Further Reading

USEFUL WEBSITES

DISCOGRAPHY

REFERENCE TOOLS

EDITIONS, TRANSLATIONS, FACSIMILES AND COMMENTARIES

GENERAL SURVEYS AND DISCUSSIONS

Acknowledgements

THE ELDER EDDA

The Elder Edda

Völuspá: The prophecy of the seeress

[DVERGATAL (‘THE TALLY OF DWARFS’):]

[RETURN TO VÖLUSPÁ:]