Front cover

Praise for July 1914

‘A work of meticulous scholarship … McMeekin’s description of the details of life in the European capitals – small events that influenced great decisions – makes July 1914 irresistible.’

Roy Hattersley, The Times

‘A genuinely exciting, almost hour-by-hour account of the terrible month when Europe’s diplomats danced their continent over the edge and into the abyss.’

Nigel Jones, BBC History Magazine

‘Sean McMeekin’s splendid July 1914 unravels all the shenanigans, bluffs and bunglings by which Europe’s leaders and diplomats turned a minor murder in a Balkans backwater into total war … There are scenes in July 1914 that linger long after the cover is closed.’

John Lewis-Stempel, Sunday Express

‘McMeekin shows us precisely why the conflict happened … [he] tells these stories with clarity and skill, drawing expert portraits of all the characters involved.’

Mail on Sunday

‘Lucid, convincing and full of rich detail, the book is a triumph for the narrative method and a vivid demonstration that chronology is the logic of history.’

The Independent

‘[S]timulating and enjoyable … Sean McMeekin’s [July 1914] is controversial, arguing that Russia and France were more bent than Germany on war in July 1914 … [A] well-written book.’

Financial Times

‘Sean McMeekin is establishing himself as a – or even the – leading young historian of modern Europe. Here he turns his gifts to the outbreak of war in July 1914 and has written another masterpiece.’

Norman Stone, author of World War Two: A Short History

‘[A] superbly researched political history of the weeks between the assassination of Austria’s Archduke Franz Ferdinand and the beginning of World War I … McMeekin’s work is a fine diplomatic history of the period, a must-read for serious students of WWI, and a fascinating story for anyone interested in modern history.’

Publishers Weekly, starred review

‘[A] thoroughly rewarding account that spares no nation regarding the causes of World War I … McMeekin delivers a gripping, almost day-by-day chronicle of the increasingly frantic maneuvers of European civilian leaders who mostly didn’t want war and military leaders who had less objection.’

Kirkus Reviews, starred review

‘The historiography of World War I is immense, more than 25,000 volumes and articles even before next year’s centenary. Still, … Sean McMeekin, in July 1914, [offers a] new perspective. … McMeekin has chosen the zoom lens. He opens with a crisp but vivid reconstruction of the double murder in the sunshine of Sarajevo, then concentrates entirely on unraveling the choreography day by day.’

Harold Evans, New York Times Book Review

‘Alluding to historical controversies, McMeekin ably delivers what readers demand from a WWI-origins history: a taut rendition of the July 1914 crisis.’

Booklist

‘This is a meticulously researched and vividly written reconstruction of the decisions that led to war in July 1914. McMeekin captures the human drama of this fateful month and offers a provocative assessment of the different players’ moral responsibility.’

James Sheehan, author of Where Have All the Soldiers Gone?: The Transformation of Modern Europe

‘Winners write the histories, so wars are misunderstood. Sean McMeekin takes a wider stance to get a fresh angle of vision on The Great War, and casts all war-making in a new light.’

Charles Hill, Diplomat in Residence at Yale University, Research Fellow at the Hoover Institution, and author of Trial of a Thousand Years: World Order and Islamism

‘Sean McMeekin has given us a riveting and fast-paced account of some of the most important diplomatic and military decisions of the 20th century. He depicts with chilling clarity the confusion, the incompetence, and the recklessness with which Europe’s leaders went to war in that fateful summer. Any understanding of the world we inhabit today must begin with an examination of the events of July 1914. McMeekin provides his readers with a balanced and detailed analysis of the events that gave birth to the modern age.’

Michael Neiberg, author of The Blood of Free Men

Title page artwork

Printed edition published in the UK in 2013 by

Icon Books Ltd, Omnibus Business Centre,

39–41 North Road, London N7 9DP

email: info@iconbooks.com

www.iconbooks.com

This electronic edition published in 2013 by Icon Books Ltd

ISBN: 978-184831-609-6 (ePub format)

Text copyright © 2013 Sean McMeekin

The author has asserted his moral rights.

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, or by any means, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.

Typesetting by the Perseus Books Group

For the fallen

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Sean McMeekin’s books include The Berlin-Baghdad Express: The Ottoman Empire and Germany’s Bid for World Power (Penguin/Allen Lane) and The Russian Origins of the First World War (Harvard University Press). He lives in Istanbul with his wife, Nesrin, and their daughter, Ayla.

ALSO BY SEAN McMEEKIN:

History’s Greatest Heist

The Red Millionaire

CONTENTS


Endorsements

Title page

Copyright information

Dedication

By same author

AUTHOR’S NOTE

DRAMATIS PERSONAE

CHRONOLOGY

PROLOGUE: SARAJEVO, SUNDAY, 28 JUNE 1914

I. REACTIONS

1. Vienna: Anger, Not Sympathy

2. St Petersburg: No Quarter Given

3. Paris and London: Unwelcome Interruption

4. Berlin: Sympathy and Impatience

II. COUNTDOWN

5. The Count Hoyos Mission to Berlin

Sunday–Monday, 5–6 July

6. War Council in Vienna (I)

Tuesday, 7 July

7. Radio Silence

8–17 July

8. Enter Sazonov

Saturday, 18 July

9. War Council in Vienna (II)

Sunday, 19 July

10. Poincaré Meets the Tsar

Monday, 20 July

11. Sazonov’s Threat

Tuesday, 21 July

12. Champagne Summit

Wednesday–Thursday, 22–23 July

13. Anti-Ultimatum and Ultimatum

Thursday, 23 July

14. Sazonov Strikes

Friday, 24 July

15. Russia, France, and Serbia Stand Firm

Saturday, 25 July

16. Russia Prepares for War

Sunday, 26 July

17. The Kaiser Returns

Monday, 27 July

18. ‘You Have Got Me into a Fine Mess’

Tuesday, 28 July

19. ‘I Will Not Be Responsible for a Monstrous Slaughter!’

Wednesday, 29 July

20. Slaughter It Is

Thursday, 30 July

21. Last Chance Saloon

Friday, 31 July

22. ‘Now You Can Do What You Want’

Saturday, 1 August

23. Britain Wakes Up to the Danger

Sunday, 2 August

24. Sir Edward Grey’s Big Moment

Monday, 3 August

25. World War: No Going Back

Tuesday, 4 August

EPILOGUE: THE QUESTION OF RESPONSIBILITY

NOTES

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Frequently Cited Sources

Other Works Cited or Profitably Consulted for This Work

INDEX

AUTHOR’S NOTE


I WOULD LIKE TO THANK MY AGENT, Andrew Lownie, for taking on this project and sharpening it with his suggestions. Likewise, I am indebted to Lara Heimert of Basic Books for believing in the book and to Roger Labrie and Beth Wright for sharpening my prose. It is always a pleasure to find editors who share one’s enthusiasm for a subject. I am also indebted to the archivists without whom I could not have told my story. I have spent many happy months in the Foreign Office archives of Germany, Austria, Russia, France, and England. While it is impossible to thank everyone, I would like to single out Joachim Tepperberg of the Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv in Vienna and Mareike Fossenberg of the Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amtes in Berlin, both of whom performed wonders on my behalf.

I have drawn inspiration from secondary works. Like many other historians (particularly Americans, for whom the First World War is not quite as central to our own national story as it is for Europeans), I first fell in love with the subject when I devoured Barbara Tuchman’s The Guns of August (1962). I still have my tattered old paperback edition, with its cover price (75 cents) reminding me that it comes from another era. While not all of her conclusions have stood up over time, Tuchman’s perfectly wrought character sketches and incomparable scene settings ensure that her book will always find an audience among history lovers. The best thing about The Guns of August, for my purposes, is that she left the July crisis alone, picking up her narrative only on 1 August.

The historical literature on the July crisis of 1914 is vast, although not quite so vast as that on the First World War, which resulted from it. Anyone who tackles the July crisis realises that, on almost any issue of scholarly dispute, Sidney Fay, Bernadotte Schmitt, or Luigi Albertini got there first. It is impossible to write about July 1914 without developing an intimate relationship with Albertini’s three-volume history. This is also true of the great documentary collections compiled by the major powers after the war. While the odd document slipped through the cracks, and revelations continue to emerge from former Soviet or Eastern Bloc archives opened in 1991 (of which I can claim credit for some), for the most part the basic documentation on the July crisis has remained unchanged since the 1930s. Like Albertini’s, like that of nearly all historians, my narrative draws primarily on these great documentary collections. I am grateful to their editors, particularly those behind the famous Kautsky-Montgelas-Schückert series of German documents, which reproduces not only the full text of most key telegrams but also marginalia scribbled on them, with precise time-dating, down to the minute, for dispatch, decoding, and even when they were read by the chancellor or kaiser.

It has always been my preference to go back to the sources directly, rather than to filter my interpretation through those of others. For this reason, while acknowledging my debts to the historians in the bibliography, I have kept my narrative as clean as possible, eschewing scholarly disputation in the main text. Those wishing to read further may consult the bibliography; those interested in sources and the fine points of debate will find them in the endnotes.

For readers, I can offer a note on 1914-era diplomatic terminology.

‘Chorister’s Bridge’ is shorthand for the Imperial Russian Foreign Ministry. ‘Whitehall’ stands for the British Foreign Office (and/or government), the ‘Wilhelmstrasse’ for the German Foreign Office (and/or the Chancellery), the ‘Ballhausplatz’ (or ‘Ballplatz’) for the Austro-Hungarian government, and ‘Quai d’Orsay’ for the French Foreign Ministry.

DRAMATIS PERSONAE


Austria-Hungary

Berchtold, Leopold von, Count. Foreign minister of Austria-Hungary, 1912–1915.

Bienerth, Karl von, Count, Lieutenant-Colonel. Austrian military attaché in Berlin, 1910–1914.

Biliński, Leon von. Austrian minister for Bosnia-Herzegovina and common imperial finance minister.

Conrad von Hötzendorf, Franz. Austria-Hungary’s army chief of staff, 1912–1916.

Czernin, Otto. Austrian legation secretary in St Petersburg, and interim ambassador there in absence of Count Friedrich Szapáry.

Franz Ferdinand, Archduke. Heir to the Habsburg throne of Austria-Hungary.

Franz Josef I. Emperor of Austria and king of Hungary, 1848–1916.

Friedrich, Archduke, Duke of Teschen. Appointed supreme commander of the Common Imperial Army in July 1914.

Giesl von Gieslingen, Baron. Austrian minister in Serbia, 1913–1914.

Hoyos, Alexander, Count. Berchtold’s secretary and special envoy to Berlin, July 1914.

Krobatin, Alexander, General. Common imperial war minister.

Mensdorff, Albert, Count. Austria-Hungary’s ambassador to England, 1904–1914.

Potiorek, Oskar. Austrian military governor of Bosnia-Herzegovina.

Ritter von Storck, Wilhelm. Austrian chargé d’affaires in Belgrade.

Stürgkh, Karl, Count. Austrian minister-president.

Szapáry, Friedrich, Count. Austria-Hungary’s ambassador to Russia, 1913–1914.

Szögyény, Ladislaus, Count. Austria-Hungary’s ambassador to Germany, 1892–1914.

Tisza, Stefan, Count. Minister-president of Hungary, 1903–1905, 1913–1917.

Belgium

Albert I. King of Belgium, 1909–1934.

France

Barrère, Camille. France’s ambassador to Italy, 1897–1924.

Bienvenu-Martin, Jean-Baptiste. French Minister of Justice and acting director of foreign affairs at the Quai d’Orsay in July 1914.

Boppe, Jules August. French minister to Belgrade, 1914.

Caillaux, Joseph. French prime minister (1911–1912) and finance minister, 1899–1902, 1906–1909, 1913–1914.

Cambon, Jules. France’s ambassador to Germany, 1907–1914.

Cambon, Paul. France’s ambassador to Britain, 1898–1920.

Dumaine, Alfred. France’s ambassador to Austria-Hungary, 1912–1914.

Joffre, Joseph. Chief of staff of the French army, 1911–1916.

Laguiche, Pierre de, General. French military attaché in St Petersburg.

Messimy, Adolphe. France’s minister of war, 1911–1912 and June–August 1914.

Paléologue, Maurice. France’s ambassador to Russia, 1914–1917.

Poincaré, Raymond. President of France, 1913–1920.

Robien, Louis de. French embassy attaché in St Petersburg.

Viviani, René. France’s premier and foreign minister at various points in 1914 and 1915, including both offices in June–July 1914.

Germany

Below-Selaske, Klaus von. German minister at Brussels, 1913–1914.

Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von. Chancellor of Imperial Germany, 1909–1917.

Bülow, Bernhard von, Prince. Chancellor of Imperial Germany, 1900–1909.

Chelius, Oskar von, General. German military attaché in St Petersburg and aide-de-camp to Tsar Nicholas II, 1914.

Falkenhayn, Erich von. Prussian minister of war, 1913–1915.

Griesinger, Julius Adolph, Baron. Germany minister to Belgrade, 1911–1914.

Jagow, Gottlieb von. State secretary of Imperial Germany, 1913–1916.

Lichnowsky, Prince Karl Max von. Germany’s ambassador to Britain, 1912–1914.

Moltke ‘the Younger,’ Helmuth von. Chief of staff of the German army, 1906–1914.

Müller, Georg Alexander von, Admiral. Chief of German naval cabinet, 1906–1918.

Plessen, Hans G. H. von, General, adjutant to Kaiser Wilhelm II.

Pourtalès, Friedrich. Germany’s ambassador to Russia, 1907–1914.

Riezler, Kurt. Private secretary to Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg, 1909–1914.

Schlieffen, Alfred von, Count, Field Marshal. Chief of German General Staff, 1891–1906.

Schoen, Wilhelm von, Baron. Germany’s ambassador to France, 1910–1914.

Stumm, Wilhelm von. Political director of the German Foreign Office, 1911–1916.

Tirpitz, Alfred von. Secretary of state of the German Imperial Naval Office, 1897–1916.

Tschirschky, Heinrich von, Count. German ambassador to Austria-Hungary, 1907–1914.

Wilhelm II. Emperor (‘Kaiser’) of Imperial Germany, 1888–1918.

Zimmermann, Arthur. Undersecretary of state of Imperial Germany, 1911–1916.

Great Britain

Asquith, Herbert Henry. Liberal British prime minister, 1908–1916.

Bertie, Sir Francis. Britain’s ambassador to France, 1905–1918.

Buchanan, Sir George. Britain’s ambassador to Russia, 1910–1918.

Churchill, Winston. Britain’s first lord of the Admiralty, 1911–1915.

Crackanthorpe, Dayrell. British chargé d’affaires in Belgrade, 1912–1915.

Crowe, Sir Eyre. Senior clerk in the British Foreign Office.

De Bunsen, Sir Maurice. Britain’s ambassador to Austria, 1913–1914.

George V. King of England, 1910–1936.

Goschen, Sir W. Edward. Britain’s ambassador to Germany, 1908–1914.

Grey, Sir Edward. His Majesty’s foreign secretary, 1905–1916.

Morley, Lord John. Lord President of the Council, 1910–1914.

Nicolson, Sir Arthur. Permanent undersecretary in the British Foreign Office, 1910–1916.

Wilson, Sir Henry, General. Director of military operations in British War Office, 1910–1914.

Russia

Artamonov, Viktor A., General. Russian military attaché in Belgrade, 1912–1914.

Bark, Peter. Russian minister of finance, 1914–1917.

Benckendorff, Alexander K., Count. Russian ambassador to England, 1903–1917.

Dobrorolskii, Sergei, General. Chief of Russian army’s mobilisation section, 1914.

Goremykin, Ivan L. Chairman of Russian Council of Ministers, 1914–1916.

Grigorevich, Ivan K., Admiral. Russian naval minister, 1911–1916.

Hartwig, Nikolai. Russia’s minister in Serbia, 1909–1914.

Izvolsky, Alexander. Russia’s ambassador to France, 1910–1917.

Krivoshein, A. V. Russian minister of agriculture, 1906–1915.

Nicholas II (Romanov). Tsar of Russia, 1894–1917.

Nicholas Nikolaevich (Romanov). Grand Duke and commander in chief of the Russian Imperial Army, 1914–1915.

Sazonov, Sergei. Foreign minister of Russia, 1910–1916.

Schilling, Moritz F., Baron. Head of Chancery (i.e., chief of staff) of the Russian Foreign Ministry, 1912–1914.

Shebeko, Nikolai. Russia’s ambassador to Austria-Hungary, 1913–1914.

Stolypin, Peter. Chairman of Russian Council of Ministers, 1906–1911.

Sukhomlinov, V. A. Chief of Russian Army General Staff, 1908–1909, and Russian war minister, 1909–1915.

Yanushkevitch, N. N. General, chief of Russian Army General Staff.

Serbia

Chabrinovitch, Nedjelko. Bosnian Serb terrorist and co-conspirator of Gavrilo Princip, trained in Belgrade.

Ciganovitch, Milan. Bosnian-born Serb; liaison between Black Hand leaders and Gavrilo Princip in Belgrade. Furnished arms to the terrorists plotting to assassinate Franz Ferdinand.

Dimitrijevitch, Dragutin (‘Apis’), Colonel. Head of Serbian Military Intelligence and the Black Hand.

Grabezh, Trifko. Bosnian Serb terrorist and co-conspirator of Gavrilo Princip, trained in Belgrade.

Ilitch, Danilo. Recruiter of local terrorists in Sarajevo, in order to camouflage Serbian involvement in the assassination plot in Belgrade.

Paĉu, Laza, Dr Serbian Minister of Finance, 1912–1915.

Pašić, Nikola. Prime minister of Serbia, 1912–1918.

Princip, Gavrilo. Bosnian Serb terrorist, trained in Belgrade.

Spalaiković, M. Serbia’s ambassador to Russia, 1914.

Tankositch, Voja, Major. Co-founder of Black Hand.

CHRONOLOGY


28 June 1914

assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo

5–6 July 1914

Count Hoyos mission to Berlin leads to the ‘blank check’

10 July 1914

Berlin first learns of Austrian plans for a Serbian ultimatum

14 July 1914

Tisza converts to the Austrian ‘war party’

18 July 1914

Sazonov returns from vacation and learns of Austrian ultimatum plans

19 July 1914

the Ministerial Council in Vienna approves text of Serbian ultimatum

20–23 July 1914

the French presidential summit in St Petersburg

21 July 1914

Sazonov threatens Berchtold: ‘There must be no talk of an ultimatum’

23 July 1914

France and Russia try to warn Vienna not to issue a Serbian ultimatum; Vienna issues its ultimatum to Serbia anyway

24–25 July 1914   

Russia’s Council of Ministers decrees ‘partial mobilisation’; Tsar Nicholas II ratifies this; France’s ambassador gives imprimatur

26 July 1914

Russia begins its ‘Period Preparatory to War’

28 July 1914

Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia

29 July 1914

Tsar Nicholas II orders general mobilisation, then changes his mind

30 July 1914

Russian general mobilisation is ordered

31 July 1914   

Germany issues ultimatum to Russia to halt its mobilisation

1 August 1914

first France and then Germany orders general mobilisation; Germany declares war on Russia

3 August 1914

Grey gives speech to the Commons, making case for war if Germany violates Belgian neutrality; Germany declares war on France

4 August 1914            

German troops enter Belgium; Britain issues ultimatum to Germany; it expires at eleven PM London time; Britain and Germany at war