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| Introduction | |
| CHAPTER 1. | Call of Duty |
| CHAPTER 2. | Off to the Philippines |
| CHAPTER 3. | The Road to Bataan |
| CHAPTER 4. | Perilous Journey |
| CHAPTER 5. | North Luzon |
| CHAPTER 6. | Against the Tides |
| CHAPTER 7. | Cagayan Valley |
| CHAPTER 8. | Combat Operations |
| CHAPTER 9. | New Beginnings |
| CHAPTER 10. | Southeast Asia |
| CHAPTER 11. | SOG |
| CHAPTER 12. | Son Tay |
| Epilogue | |
| Career Chronology | |
| Bibliography |
INTRODUCTION
The fires on Bataan burned with a primitive fury on the evening of April 9, 1942, illuminating the white flags of surrender against the nighttime sky. Woefully outnumbered, outgunned, and ill-equipped, the battered remnants of the American-Philippine army surrendered to the wrath of the Rising Sun. Yet amongst the chaos and devastation of the American defeat, Army Captain Donald D. Blackburn refused to lay down his arms.
Together with Russell Volckmann, the pair escaped from Bataan and fled to the mountainous jungles of North Luzon, where they raised a private army of over 22,000 men against the Japanese. Under Volckmann’s leadership, Blackburn organized a guerrilla regiment from among the native tribes in the Cagayan Valley. “Blackburn’s Headhunters,” as they came to be known, devastated the Japanese 14th Army with in the eastern provinces of North Luzon and destroyed the Japanese naval base at Aparri—the largest enemy anchorage in the Philippine Islands.
After the war, Blackburn remained on active duty and played a key role in initiating Special Forces operations in Southeast Asia. In 1959, as commander of the 77th Special Forces Group, he spearheaded Operation White Star—the first major deployment of American Special Forces to a country with an active insurgency. Six years later, at the outset of America’s combat mission in Vietnam, Blackburn took over the highly classified Studies and Observations Group (SOG).
In the wake of the CIA’s disastrous Leaping Lena reconnaissance program, Blackburn revitalized the special operations campaign in South Vietnam. Sending cross-border reconnaissance teams into Laos, he discovered the clandestine networks and supply nodes of the infamous Ho Chi Minh Trail. Taking this information directly to General Westmoreland, Blackburn received authorization to conduct full-scale operations against the NVA and Viet Cong operating along the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
Following his return to the United States, Blackburn was appointed “Special Assistant for Counterinsurgency and Special Activities,” where he was the architect of the famous Son Tay Prison Raid. Officially termed Operation Ivory Coast (and later, Kingpin) the Son Tay Raid was the largest POW rescue mission—and indeed, the largest Special Forces operation—of the Vietnam War.
The idea for this project began in January 2008 when I was conducting research for my first book, American Guerrilla: The Forgotten Heroics of Russell W. Volckmann. In the opening stages of the war, Blackburn and Volckmann developed a close friendship while they were assigned to Headquarters Staff, 11th Division (Philippine Army). Previously, I knew nothing about Donald Blackburn outside of Volckmann’s literature. However, at the US Army’s Military History Institute (MHI) in Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania, I discovered the 400-page transcript of an interview conducted with Blackburn by Lieutenant Colonel Robert Smith (USAF) in 1983. As part of the “Senior Officers Oral History Program,” this interview covered nearly every aspect of Blackburn’s life—his childhood, the Philippines, Vietnam, Son Tay, and his activities since retirement. After reading the transcript, I was surprised that, despite his impressive career, no one had ever written a biography of Donald Blackburn.
At this stage in my research, I assumed that Blackburn, like many of Volckmann’s comrades, had passed away. However, the interview transcript included a bio-data section indicating that Blackburn had two children, Donald Jr. and Susan. I initiated a public records search to locate Blackburn’s children and, in the course of doing so, was surprised to discover that Blackburn himself was still alive and living in Sarasota, Florida. Contacting Blackburn’s family, I secured a visitation in March 2008.
Unfortunately, Blackburn had been suffering from Alzheimer’s which diluted much of his memory. However, his daughter, Susan, granted me access to all of his records. Comprising nearly two whole filing cabinets, “The Donald D. Blackburn Collection” included a wealth of photographs, letters, war trophies, guerrilla reports, and official duplicates of government documents. I also learned that Blackburn, like Volckmann, had kept a diary while in the Philippines. The diary spanned the period from October 23, 1941 to April 29, 1944. Although Blackburn’s diary contained fewer entries than Volckmann’s, Blackburn often wrote his entries at greater length.
Blackburn’s diary became the basis of the 1955 book, Blackburn’s Headhunters. The idea for that work began in 1950, when Blackburn was teaching at West Point in the Department of Military Psychology and Leadership. As it were, Blackburn’s wartime experience caught the attention of the Commandant of Cadets, then-Major General Paul D. Harkins. Convincing Blackburn to get his story published, General Harkins tasked his younger brother, Philip Harkins, to pen Blackburn’s Headhunters.*
Four years after its publication, Hollywood turned Blackburn’s Headhunters into a feature film. Allied Artists, a prominent B-movie studio, began production in 1958 and invited Blackburn to serve as a technical advisor on the film. Actor Keith Andes (a Broadway baritone and former leading man to Marilyn Monroe) portrayed Blackburn in the film. Under the new title Surrender—Hell!, the movie was released on July 26, 1959. The film was a modest success at the box office, but Blackburn hated it. He thought that the filmmakers had taken too much artistic license by creating subplots that never existed. On one occasion, he called it “the worst movie I’ve ever seen.” Modern critics have often referred to it as typical 1950s B-movie fare.
In Spring 2008, Surrender—Hell! had not yet been released on any home video format. Determined to see whether the film held any research value, I began searching for the rights-holder. Allied Artists had since gone out of business and its film library had been acquired by Republic Pictures. However, my search for Surrender—Hell! ultimately led me to a gentlemen named Kit Parker, proprietor of Kit Parker Films International. Parker’s film studio specializes in restoring old noir films and re-releases them through VCI Entertainment. Contacting Parker about the rights to Surrender—Hell!, he informed me that his production team had restored the film and were planning to re-release it on DVD that summer. After watching Surrender—Hell! I can understand Blackburn’s frustration with the subplots and historical inaccuracies. And although it provided no help to my research, I still found it to be an enjoyable film.
Blackburn also conducted interviews with the Special Warfare Center in 1988 and 1993, respectively. Both interviews cover the same topics as the 1983 MHI Oral History Project. The transcript for the 1988 interview currently rests at the US Special Operations Command History Office at Fort Bragg, North Carolina. The audiotapes for the 1993 interview are also at Fort Bragg, filed in the JFK Special Warfare Center and School Archives.
Works produced by Blackburn’s own hand include “War Within a War: The Philippines, 1942–1945” and “Operations of the 11th Infantry, USAFIP-NL, in the Capture of Mayoyao, Mountain Province, PI, 26 July–8 August 1945.” The former is an article Blackburn submitted for the Summer 1988 edition of Conflict, while the later was Blackburn’s capstone research paper for the Infantry Officers Advanced Course, which he attended in 1947–48. “War Within a War” gives an overview of his and Volckmann’s guerrilla campaign in North Luzon. The paper describes in detail Blackburn’s own experience as a regimental commander fighting the Japanese in the Mayayao Campaign.
I was fortunate that there were many secondary sources available for this project. These included John Plaster’s seminal work, SOG, and Harve Saal’s massive four-volume treatise Behind Enemy Lines: SOG–MACV Studies and Observations Group. Benjamin Schemmer’s The Raid and John Gargus’ The Son Tay Raid: American POWs in Vietnam Were Not Forgotten are perhaps the two most authoritative works on the Son Tay Raid. Other references for this project included the US Army in Vietnam series and Vietnam Studies series produced by the US Army Center for Military History.
As with any sources, however, none of them are without their potential liabilities. Volckmann and Blackburn achieved remarkable consistency with their respective diaries. However, there are a few discrepancies. Names and places are often spelled differently. Blackburn describes meeting people who Volckmann never mentions. In some instances, the chronology of events is different. For instance, Volckmann records one event happening on a Wednesday, while Blackburn recalls the same incident happening on a Friday. Those who have read American Guerrilla may notice that some of these discrepancies are evidenced in Shadow Commander. However, this is only because I am telling the story from Blackburn’s perspective.
Blackburn’s Headhunters, while not a “secondary source” in the strictest sense, may have had some distillation from Philip Harkins. However, in Blackburn’s private collection, I found many letters to and from Harkins. In Harkins’ correspondence, he often asked Blackburn for clarification on diary entries he didn’t understand or verification of characters and locales. This, I believe, indicates that Harkins wanted to retain the integrity of Blackburn’s story.
Blackburn’s interviews from 1983, 1988, and 1993 were conducted years after he retired from the military. As with any event that happened long ago, memory often distorts and rearranges the facts of the story. However, during these years, Blackburn still had his mental faculties and possessed remarkable memory. Furthermore, these interviews do not greatly contradict one another nor the events told in Blackburn’s Headhunters.* Aside from Blackburn himself, who was tragically losing his fight against Alzheimer’s, the other subjects who I interviewed for this project were all of sound mind and consistent with their recollections. In sum, I believe that my research and selection of source material warrant the credibility to support the information in this book.
This book is, first and foremost, a biography of Donald Blackburn. His life is the driving force behind the narrative; therefore, the reader will not find any detailed discussions on the larger topics of the secret war in Laos or the Son Tay Raid. Blackburn’s life touched upon many historical events, and while I have provided some detail and background about these events for the sake of context, these topics are discussed only inasmuch as Blackburn participated in them.
I give special thanks to Donald Blackburn, Jr., Susan Blackburn Douglas, and her husband, Bill Douglas, for their kindness and hospitality throughout this project. Without their support, this book may never have been written. I would also like to thank the courteous and attentive staff at the National Archives and Records Administration, the Military History Institute, The Special Warfare Center History Support Office, and the Copyright Clearance Center, for their assistance during my research. My appreciation also goes to the Army Center for Military History, whose maps provided the basis of information for those which appear in this work. Finally, I would like to thank the editorial/production team at Casemate Publishers for the patience and professional support they provided throughout every phase of this project.
In a career that spanned over thirty years, Donald D. Blackburn was a true hero of the Army Special Forces. Shadow Commander is his story.
*General Harkins went on to become the inaugural commander of the Military Assistance Command—Vietnam (MACV) in 1962. The younger Harkins was an accomplished writer whose other titles included Road Race and Breakaway Back.
*The quotations found in this book are from either Blackburn’s interviews or Blackburn’s Headhunters unless otherwise noted.
CHAPTER 1
CALL OF DUTY
The morning sun beat down mercilessly on what little remained of Headquarters Battalion, 12th Infantry, and its commander, First Lieutenant Donald D. Blackburn, knew that time was running out. Crouching behind their hastily dug-in fighting positions, his young Filipinos—inaugural members of the Philippine Army—prepared to open fire on the Japanese landing craft barreling towards the shore. The enemy had been probing their coastal defenses for the past twelve hours, determined to crush the “speed bump” that lay between them and their conquest of the Philippine Islands. As he braced himself for the incoming wave of enemy troops, Blackburn began to wonder how he had gotten himself into this mess, or if he would ever live to tell about it.
The story of Donald Dunwoody Blackburn begins on the idyllic shores of the American Sunbelt. Born on September 14, 1916 in West Palm Beach, Florida, “Don” spent his formative years growing up in the suburbs of Tampa. He never revealed much about his upbringing, other than to say that it was typical of most boys growing up in western Florida. Indeed, the young man dedicated most of his childhood to swimming, sailing, and other nautical pursuits. In many ways, Don Blackburn was also a product of his time—his was the generation raised on the harrowing tales of the Great War, the decadence of the Roaring Twenties, and the bitter hardships of the Great Depression. And, like many young men of his day, he was fervently patriotic. From an early age he admired the sense of duty and patriotism that came with military service. Despite his childhood interest in water borne activities, Don found him self attracted to the culture and life style of the United States Army.
Graduating from Plant High School in 1934, Blackburn announced his decision to enroll in an Army ROTC program. That fall he matriculated at the University of Florida, pursuing a degree in Business with a minor in Military Science. He enjoyed college life, but admitted that “I squeaked by through the skin of my teeth … I just wasn’t motivated towards anything in particular, other than enjoying fraternity life.” Nevertheless, his experiences as an Army cadet validated the passions he had had for soldiering. Excelling in many areas of his cadetship, Don was an active member in the Scabbard & Blade Society, and rose to the rank of Cadet Captain. After serving as an ROTC Company Commander during his senior year, Blackburn graduated in 1938 with a commission as a Second Lieutenant of Infantry.
Although he was an outstanding cadet, the Thompson Act of 1932 ultimately prevented Don from serving on active duty. A hallmark of an isolationist Congress, the Thompson Act limited the number of ROTC graduates who could enter active duty within a certain fiscal year. Unwittingly cast into the Army Reserve, Blackburn decided to make the best of it and begin searching for a full-time job.
As it was throughout most of the Depression Era, the best job opportunities were in the public sector. Coincidentally, Blackburn’s uncle—a pioneer of early avionics—landed him a job with the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) in Washington, DC. This job placement was fortuitous as it reunited Don with his former ROTC instructor, Lieutenant Colonel Claude Adams. Adams had just been transferred to the office of the Army Chief of Staff, only a few blocks away from the CAB offices. One summer night in 1940, while enjoying dinner at Adams’ house, Don confessed that although he enjoyed his job at the Aeronautics Board, he regretted not being able to serve on active duty. Hearing this, Adams stopped him and said, “Well, Don, why don’t you do it? Your name, in all probability, will come up for call to active duty this year [1940].”
Shortly before Congress passed the Selective Training and Service Act (the first peacetime draft in American history), the Army had begun calling its Reserve officers into active service for a period of one year—renewable based on national security and manpower needs. Adams, however, cautioned Blackburn, saying that “If your name comes up this year, you’re going to have to drop out of school.” Blackburn had been attending night classes at Georgetown University Law School and, ideally, was to sit for the DC Bar Exam in less than a year. Nevertheless, he looked Adams straight in the eye and said, “I’d just as soon go on active duty.”
In all, Blackburn had no reason to fear being left out of active service, for the political climate of 1940 was vastly different from what it had been only two years earlier. Isolationism still rang high in halls of Congress, but the ideology was quickly losing steam as Nazi Germany—which had inaugurated another European war on September 1, 1939—advanced on all fronts. For the first time in nearly a quartercentury, the U.S. government authorized a full-scale increase in military spending. Meanwhile, across the pond, the British relied heavily on American logistics in their life-and-death struggle against the Luftwaffe and the Kriegsmarine. Still, many Americans hoped that the war in Europe would run its course without their involvement. The Empire of Japan, at this stage, was of little concern to anyone. Despite its recent aggressions on the Chinese mainland, everyone knew that the Rising Sun would never challenge the U.S. Navy.
In his conversation with Adams, Blackburn expressed a desire to go to Fort Benning, Georgia—the “Home of the Infantry.” According to Blackburn, “It so happened that General Embrick, the CG [Commanding General] of the IV Corps Area located in Atlanta, was in town. Since Adams was in the Chief’s Office, he talked to Embrick and it was arranged that in September—this was then August of 1940—I would receive orders to go to Fort Benning,” orders which assigned him to the 24th Infantry Regiment.
Assuming his role as a nowactive duty lieutenant, Blackburn was sent to the Communications School on-post and was appointed as a Battalion Signal Officer. For the first few months at Fort Benning, Don lived the life of a typical bachelor until one night (at a local dance) when he won the affections of a young lady named Ann Smith. The young belle was introduced to him as the girlfriend of one of his former classmates from the University of Florida. But Blackburn, smitten as he was, pursued the young woman until she finally relented. They began dating in November 1940 and by the following summer they had set their marriage date for September 1941. Destiny, however, was about to throw them a curveball.
After returning home from maneuvers in Louisiana, Blackburn discovered that his active duty tour had been extended. He wasn’t surprised. In fact, he had seen it coming. As the situation in Europe deteriorated—along with continuing tension in Asia—there was hardly a Reservist whose tour hadn’t been extended. But shortly afterward, Blackburn recalled that “a notice appeared on the regimental bulletin board asking for volunteers for the Philippines.” He didn’t think about it again until the next day, when Second Lieutenant Harry Kuykendall barged into his tent and asked, “Did you see that?”
“Yes,” Blackburn grumbled.
“Did you volunteer?” Harry asked him.
“Hell no!”
“Neither did I, but I know they’re going to volunteer me.”
“What makes you think so?” Blackburn said.
“It’s just fate.”
Unfortunately, fate cast a grim shadow on Don Blackburn that day, as the next morning he discovered that his name (right alongside Kuykendall’s) was on the list of new officers reassigned to the Philippine Islands.
Blackburn was not amused; he couldn’t go to the Philippines, he was getting married. “And I hardly knew where the Philippines were,” he added. Phoning Lieutenant Colonel Adams to tell him the news, Blackburn was surprised when Adams congratulated him on the new posting. An assignment to the Philippine Islands was every soldier’s dream, Adams said. Tropical beaches, warm weather, and the “Pearl of the Orient”—he should be so lucky. And “if anything’s going to happen,” he told Blackburn, “it’s going to happen in Europe, and not in the Philippines.” Be that as it may, Blackburn still had a fiancée. What would this do to his marriage plans?
Consulting with Ann later that night, Don told her, “You’re going to have to hang in there, because I’m not going to marry you with me over there and you over here.” He never mentioned the details of her reaction, but sufficed to say that Ann “didn’t think it was such a hot arrangement.” All things considered, however, Don knew it was for best. He loved her dearly, but until the situation overseas could be resolved, he simply wouldn’t take the risk of making her a widow so early into her marriage. Sooner or later, he said, Americans would be in this war whether they liked it or not.
An American Commonwealth since the Spanish-American War in 1898, the Philippines were in the midst of their transition to full sovereignty. In 1935, Congress had passed the Tydings-McDuffie Act, which set a ten-year timeline for Philippine independence and made provisions for establishing a new Philippine Army. To fill the ranks of this inaugural army, Philippine President Manuel Quezon drew personnel from the US Philippine Scouts and the Philippine Constabulary. The Philippine Scouts were a highly trained and well-equipped American Army unit in which all of the enlisted men (and most of the junior officers) were Filipino. The Philippine Constabulary was the national police force.
American forces in the Philippines fell under the jurisdiction of the United States Armed Forces—Far East (USAFFE).* Commanded by an Army General (at the time, Douglas MacArthur), USAFFE encompassed all American ground forces, the Asiatic Fleet, the Far East Air Force, and the semi-autonomous Philippine Army. USAFFE’s mission was to defend the archipelago and to train the new Philippine Army. To this end, the US Army sent thousands of its young officers to the Pacific to serve as low-level commanders and instructors in the Philippine Army.
With his orders in hand, Blackburn departed Washington, DC on a train bound for San Francisco. The trip was quite an odyssey as most of the passengers were military personnel, and nearly all of them were headed to the Philippines. On arrival in Lake Charles, Louisiana, the train was boarded by a group of soldiers just in from maneuvers outside Camp Polk. From there, the trip took a rather interesting turn. In the tradition of easily bored young men, the new GIs invented outlandish ways to keep themselves entertained. Shortly after crossing into Texas, one fellow proclaimed, “Let’s have a party … I can’t stand this thing.” With that, he went rummaging through the baggage car and produced a banjo, some exotic booze, and a handful of hula skirts. Blackburn stood there in bewilderment as the young man proceeded to coax the few women on board to put on the hula skirts and start dancing. Booze and good tidings made their way around the passenger car as the train lumbered westward to California.
Arriving in San Francisco, however, the mood was decidedly different. The once joyful lot now somberly boarded the USS Holbrook en route to the Philippines. As it were, the passenger manifest included none other than the “barracks fortune-teller,” Harry Kuykendall. Over the twenty-three day voyage, Kuykendall, once again, was up to his fatalistic fortune-telling. One day, in the ship’s galley, Blackburn came upon “Old Harry” and found him reading a copy of Orphans of the Pacific by John Michener. Kuykendall said, “I’ve just been reading about these stinking barrios and all the disease over there, and I can see now that when I get there, I’m going to be put in one of these barrios and get some kind of tropical disease.”
When the Holbrook finally arrived in the Philippines, Don told him, “Now Kuykendall, you read the good things in that book, because I’m not going to the awful places you’ve read about.” Trying to inject a little bit of optimism into the somber fellow, Blackburn speculated that they might end up in Baguio together. Baguio, a city nestled within the mountains of the Cordillera Central, was home to Camp John Hay, one of the nicest military bases in the archipelago. Disembarking from the ship, the assignment orders were read aloud and the pair discovered that they were, in fact, assigned to Baguio. “See?” Blackburn told him, “I knew it—‘Lieutenant Kuykendall, Baguio’.”
“Oh it won’t last,” Kuykendall interjected. “I’ll end up in the stinking damn malaria-ridden country.”
Blackburn tried to remain upbeat. Perhaps this year-long tour in the Philippines would pass without incident.
*Pronounced: “you-saw-fee.”