Contents
Cover
Series
Title Page
Copyright
Series
Contributors
Foreword
Preface
Introduction
Why Nonthermal Technologies?
Novel Nonthermal Technologies
Additional Relevant Issues Regarding Novel Technologies
Global Harmonization Initiative
Hurdle Technology
Final Remarks
Section I: Physical Processes
Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Food Processing Using High Pressure
1. Introduction
2. Basic Principles Governing HPP
3. Typical Process Description
4. Packaging
5. Pressure-Transmitting Fluids
6. Pressure–Temperature Response during Processing
7. Treatment Effects during HPP
8. Properties of Food Materials under High Pressure
9. Process Uniformity during HPP
10. Modeling Process Uniformity
11. Approaches to Minimize Process Nonuniformity
12. Conclusion
Chapter 2: High-Pressure Processing Equipment Fundamentals
1. Introduction
2. Pressure Vessels and Their Materials and Methods of Construction
3. Pressure Vessel Design
4. Vessel Closures
5. Operating Temperature Considerations
6. Pressure Vessel and Yoke Orientations: Vertical, Horizontal, and Tilting Systems
7. Pump–Intensifiers and Supporting High Pressure Components
8. Control Systems
9. Other System Considerations
10. Laws Regulating the Installation and Operation of High-Pressure Equipment
11. Conclusion
Chapter 3: High-Pressure Processing Pathways to Commercialization
1. Introduction
2. Planning for High-Pressure Equipment Production Needs—Product Technical Plan
3. Product Business Plan
4. Determining Commercial High-Pressure System Requirements
5. Operating Costs of Commercial High-Pressure Systems
6. Cycle Time Analysis
7. Packaging and Material Handling Factors
8. Product Manufacturing Specifications Affecting High-Pressure Food Preservation Equipment Selection
9. Some Guidelines for Selecting Products for Commercial High-Pressure Treatment
10. Conclusion
Chapter 4: Case Studies on High-Pressure Processing of Foods
1. Introduction
2. Pioneers in Industrial High-Pressure Food Processing
3. Worldwide High-Pressure Commercial Food Applications
4. Commercial HPP Application by Food Sectors
5. Incentives and Constraints to Be Considered in the Use of High Pressure for Food Processing
6. Capital Costs and Production Rates
7. Examples of Commercial High-Pressure Food-Processing Companies
8. Conclusion
Chapter 5: Microbiological Aspects of High-Pressure Food Processing
1. Introduction
2. The Effects of HPP on Vegetative Bacteria
3. Mechanisms of Pressure-Induced Inactivation
4. The Effects of Suspending Medium on Pressure-Induced Inactivation
5. Injury and Repair
6. Pressure-Inactivation Kinetics
7. The Effects of HPP on Bacterial Spores
8. Pressure-Assisted Thermal Sterilization
9. The Effects of HPP on Yeasts and Molds
10. Activation and Germination of Yeast and Mold Ascospores by HP
11. The Effect of Suspending Medium on Pressure-Induced Inactivation of Yeasts and Molds
12. Process Implications for Controlling Yeast and Molds
13. The Effects of HPP on Viruses
14. Mechanisms of Pressure Inactivation of Viruses
15. Effect of Suspending Medium on Pressure Inactivation of Viruses
16. Virus Surrogates
17. Other Applications of HPP and Viruses
18. Future Research Needs
Chapter 6: Biochemical Aspects of High-Pressure Food Processing
1. Introduction
2. Water’s Role in High-Pressure Processing of Foods
3. Effects of Pressure on Food Proteins
4. Effects of Pressures on Food Carbohydrates
5. Effects of Pressure on Food Lipids
6. Effects of High Pressure on Dairy Products
7. Pressure Effects on Beef, Pork, Poultry, and Seafood
8. Effects of High Pressure on Vegetable and Fruit Quality
9. Conclusions
Chapter 7: Sensory Quality of Pressure-Treated Foods
1. What “Quality” Means
2. Creating Quality
3. Validation of Quality (Subjective and Objective)
4. Process and Product Improvements for HPP Foods
5. Examples of Quality Measurements Appropriate to HPP Treated Foods
Chapter 8: Hydrodynamic Pressure Processing of Meat Products§
1. Introduction
2. History and Origin of Hydrodynamic Pressure Processing
3. Principles of HDP for Meat Tenderization
4. HDP Technology and Meat Tenderization Process Enhancements
5. Microbial Safety Resulting from HDP Treatment of Meat
6. Inactivation of Food-borne Pathogens in Meat by HDP
7. Combination of HDP with Antimicrobial Interventions (see also Chapter 28)
8. Shelf Life Extension of Meat Treated by HDP
9. Future Research Opportunities to Improve HDP
10. Acknowledgments
Chapter 9: Physicochemical Effects of High-Intensity Ultrasonication on Food Proteins and Carbohydrates
1. Introduction
2. The Physics of High-Intensity Ultrasound
3. General Physicochemical Effects of Cavitation
4. High-Intensity Ultrasound Processing Parameters
5. Ultrasonic Power in Processing Applications
6. Effect of High-Intensity Ultrasound on Functionality of Proteins
7. Modification of Surface Activity by High-Intensity Ultrasound
8. Structural Investigations of the “Ultrasonically Induced” State of Proteins
9. Influence of High-Intensity Ultrasonication on Gelation Behavior
10. Ability of Ultrasonicated Proteins to Stabilize Emulsions
11. Influence of High-Intensity Ultrasound on the Foam Stabilization of Proteins
12. Effect of Ultrasonic Energy on Enzymatic Activity (also see Section 9.6)
13. The Effect of High-Intensity Ultrasound on Functionality of Carbohydrates
14. Classical and Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Carbohydrates
15. Mechanical Effects of High-Intensity Ultrasonication on Carbohydrates
16. Chemical Changes in Carbohydrates caused by High-Intensity Ultrasonication
17. Effect of High-Intensity Ultrasonication on Specific Carbohydrates
18. Influence of High-Intensity Ultrasound on Gelation of Carbohydrates
19. Immunology of Ultrasonically Treated Carbohydrates
20. Conclusions
Chapter 10: Ultrasonic Processing
1. Introduction
2. Generation of Ultrasound and Ultrasound Systems
3. Ultrasound Measurement
4. Acoustic Cavitation
5. Power Ultrasound Applications
6. Inactivation of Microorganisms
7. Enzyme Inactivation and Activity Control
8. Cleaning and Surface Decontamination
9. Ultrasonically Enhanced Heat and Mass Transfer
10. Bioseparation
11. Power Ultrasound Applications
12. Glossary
Section II: Electromagnetic Processes
Chapter 11: Pulsed Electric Fields Processing Basics
1. Introduction
2. Mechanisms of Action
3. Process Engineering of Pulsed Electric Field Treatments
4. Processing Critical Parameters
5. Pulsed Electric Field Processing Systems
6. Limitations and Challenges when Designing Pulsed Electric Field Processing Systems
7. Potential Food Processing Applications of Pulsed Electric Fields
8. Economical and Environmental Considerations of Pulsed Electric Field Treatments
9. Final Considerations and Future Needs
Chapter 12: Engineering Aspects of Pulsed Electric Fields
1. Introduction
2. Electrical Components
3. Conductivity and Intrinsic Electrical Resistance
4. Controlling and Monitoring
5. Specific Energy and Temperature
6. Fluid Flow in Coaxial Treatment Chamber Design
7. PEF System Efficiency
8. Final Remarks
Chapter 13: Pulsed Electric Field Assisted Extraction—A Case Study
1. Introduction
2. Application Examples
3. Cost Estimation
4. Industrial Scale Equipment Availability
Chapter 14: Improving Electrode Durability of PEF Chamber by Selecting Suitable Material
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results and Discussion
4. Conclusion
Chapter 15: Radio Frequency Electric Fields as a Nonthermal Process§
1. Introduction
2. Historical Background
3. Mechanisms of Action
4. RFEF Treatment Systems
5. Generation of RFEF Fields
6. Treatment Chamber Design
7. Main Processing Parameters
8. Applications
9. Challenges
10. Operating Costs
11. Regulations
12. Conclusions
13. Acknowledgment
Chapter 16: Use of Oscillating Magnetic Fields in Food Preservation
1. Introduction
2. Magnetic Fields
3. Effects of Magnetic Fields on Living Cells
4. Mechanisms of Microbial Inactivation
5. Critical Process Factors
6. Magnetic Fields Applications in Food Preservation
7. Research Needs
Chapter 17: Irradiation of Ground Beef and Fresh Produce
1. The Problem—Why Irradiate Beef
2. Irradiation and How It Works
3. Irradiation of Beef in the United States
4. Toxicological Safety of Irradiated Meat
5. Inactivation of E. coli O157:H7 by Irradiation
6. Organoleptic Quality of Irradiated Ground Beef
7. Consumer Acceptance and Sales of Irradiated Foods
8. Cooking Temperature, Meat Thermometers, and Risk
9. Heat Sensitivity Following Irradiation
10. Irradiation of Fresh and Fresh-cut Fruits and Vegetables
11. Conclusions
12. Acknowledgment
Chapter 18: Pulsed Ultraviolet Light
1. Introduction
2. Ultraviolet Light
3. Pulsed UV Light
4. Inactivation Mechanism of UV Light
5. UV-Light Penetration and Absorption
6. Applications of by Pulsed UV Light
7. Effect of UV Light on Food Components and Quality
8. Pathogen Inactivation Modeling for Pulsed UV Light
9. Economics of Pulsed UV Light
10. Conclusions and Future Trends
Chapter 19: Ultraviolet-C Light Processing of Liquid Food Products
1. Introduction
2. Effect of UV Light on Microbial Inactivation and DNA
3. UV Light Penetration into Liquid Food Products
4. UV-C Light Uses
5. UV Light Equipment
6. UV Light Variables in Processing Liquid Foods
7. Dosage Measurement
8. Modeling
9. Concluding Remarks
Chapter 20: Nonthermal Plasma as a Novel Food Processing Technology§
1. Introduction
2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Plasma
3. Plasma Physics—A Beginner’s Guide
4. NTP Sterilization: Overview of Mechanisms and Technologies
5. Antimicrobial Efficacy
6. Plasma Treatment of Food Contact Surfaces: Materials Processing
7. Economic Analysis
8. Key Areas for Future Research
9. Conclusions
10. Acknowledgments
Section III: Other Nonthermal Processes
Chapter 21: Basics of Ozone Sanitization and Food Applications
1. Introduction
2. Ozone Chemistry and Physics
3. Ozone Production
4. Ozone Measurement
5. Antimicrobial Properties of Ozone
6. Ozone and Food Applications
7. Selected Food Applications
8. Combination Treatments
9. Limitations, Safety Considerations, and Regulatory Status
Chapter 22: Case Studies of Ozone in Agri-Food Applications
1. Introduction
2. Agriculture and Food Storage Case Studies
3. Food Processing Plant Case Studies
4. Concluding Remarks
Chapter 23: Ozone Pathway to Commercialization
1. Introduction
2. A System Concept
3. Power Supply
4. Feed Gas
5. Ozone Generator
6. Ozone Contact/Transfer
7. Ozone Safety: Off-gas Removal/ Destruction
8. Other Considerations
9. Secret to a Successful Commercialization
Chapter 24: Effects of Dense Phase CO2 on Quality Attributes of Beverages
1. Introduction
2. DPCD Treatment Systems
3. Orange Juice Quality after DPCD Treatment
4. Grape Juice Quality after DP-CO2 Treatment
5. Quality of Beer after DPCD Treatment
6. Sensory Evaluation and Flavor Profile of Coconut Water after DPCD Treatment
7. Future Outlook
Chapter 25: Chlorine Dioxide (Gas)
1. Calculating Concentration of CDG
2. ClO2 as a Surface Sanitizer
3. ClO2 Use in the Produce Industry
Chapter 26: Electrolyzed Oxidizing Water
1. Introduction
2. Electrodialysis and EO Water Production
3. EO Water Properties
4. Inactivation of Suspended Cells by EO Water and the Effect of Temperature
5. Applications of EO Water
6. Conclusions and Future Trends
Section IV: Combination Processes
Chapter 27: Novel Technologies in Combined Processes
1. Introduction
2. Combined Processes
3. Combined Processes Based on New Technologies
4. Concluding Remarks
Chapter 28: Nonthermal Processes as Hurdles with Selected Examples
1. Introduction
2. Combinations of Nonthermal Processes and Heat
3. Combinations of Nonthermal Processes and Acidification
4. Combinations of Nonthermal Processes and Antimicrobial Agents
5. Other Combinations
6. Combinations of Nonthermal Processes
7. Final Remarks
Chapter 29: Bacteriocins as Natural Antilisterial Food Preservatives
1. Listeriosis
2. Listeria monocytogenes
3. Prevalence of L. monocytogenes in Foods
4. Legislation and Management Systems Directed Toward the Control of L. monocytogenes in Foods
5. Techniques (Nonbacteriocin) Used to Control L. monocytogenes in Foods
6. The Use of Bacteriocins to Control L. monocytogenes in Foods
7. Conclusion
Chapter 30: Antimicrobial Packaging
1. Basic Principles
2. Antimicrobial Compounds and Methods of Incorporation in Packaging Materials
3. Microbial Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Antimicrobial Packaging
4. Future Outlook for the Use of Antimicrobial Packaging for the Shelf-life Extension of Foods
Section V: Driving Forces
Chapter 31: Consumer Trends and Perception of Novel Technologies
1. Overview
2. Consumer Priorities
3. Perceived Risks
4. Product Benefits, a Driving Factor
5. Communicate with the Public
6. A Case Study: Irradiated Food
7. Summary
Chapter 32: Consumer and Sensory Issues for Development and Marketing
1. Consumer Risk Perception
2. Consumer Concerns about Foods Processed by Novel Technologies
3. Role of Information and Consumer Expectations on Food Acceptance
4. Concerns, Expectations, and Liking for Foods Processed by Emerging Technologies
5. Recommendations for Minimizing Consumer Risk Perceptions
6. Selection Criteria for Successful Product Introductions
7. Sensory Testing of Foods Processed by Nonthermal and Other Emerging Technologies
8. Conclusions
Chapter 33: Effects of High-Pressure Processing and Pulsed Electric Fields on Nutritional Quality and Health-Related Compounds of Fruit and Vegetable Products
1. Introduction
2. Fruits and Vegetables Composition: Nutrients and Bioactive Compounds
3. Effects of HPP on Nutritional and Health-Related Compounds of Fruit and Vegetable Products
4. Effects of PEF on Nutritional Quality and Health-Related Compounds of Fruit and Vegetable Products
5. Effects of HPP and PEF on Health-Related Properties of Fruit and Vegetable Products
6. Final Remarks
Chapter 34: Industrial Evaluation of Nonthermal Technologies
1. Introduction
2. Understanding the Hurdles
3. Leverage Your Knowledge for Success
Chapter 35: Transferring Emerging Food Technologies into the Market Place
1. Introduction
2. Strategies
3. Tactics
4. Conclusions
Chapter 36: New Tools for Microbiological Risk Assessment, Risk Management, and Process Validation Methodology
1. Introduction
2. New Tools for Microbiological Risk Assessment and Risk Management
3. Good Manufacturing Practices, HACCP, and Integrated Food Safety Management Systems
4. Performance, Process, and Product Criteria
5. Process Validation Methodology
6. Process Validation Methods
7. Approach to Process Validation
8. Variation and Validation
9. Summary
Chapter 37: Regulations and Alternative Food-Processing Technologies
1. Organism of Concern
2. Food Additive/Food Contact Concerns
3. Labeling Issues of Concern
4. Process Validation Concerns
5. Responsibilities
Chapter 38: Future Prospects for Nonthermal Processing Technologies—Linking Products with Technologies
1. Introduction
2. Overview of Novel Processing Technologies
3. Criteria for New Technology Implementation
4. Applications of Selected Nonthermal Technologies in Food Processing
5. Summary and a Look into the Future
6. Acknowledgments
Section VI: Appendices: Fact Sheets
Appendix 1: High Pressure Processing
Appendix 2: Pulsed Electric Field Processing
Appendix 3: Ozone
1. Why Ozone Processing of Foods?
2. How Does Ozone Treatment Benefit Consumers?
3. How Does Ozone Technology Benefit Food Processors?
4. What Is Ozone?
5. How Is Ozone Applied And Controlled?
6. Can Ozone Be Used For Processing All Foods?
7. Can Ozone Damage Food Products?
8. What Is The Shelf-Life Of An Ozone-Treated Product?
9. What is the Commercial Availability of Ozone?
10. What Are The Federal Regulations Concerning Exposure To Ozone in a Food Processing Plant?
11. What Functional Properties Does Ozone Impart to Foods?
12. How Are Ozone-Processed Foods Stored?
13. Is Ozone Equipment Safe To Operate?
14. How Economical Is Ozone Processing?
15. What Regulatory Approvals Are Required For An Ozone-Processed Product?
16. Are Testing Facilities Available for Product Development Before Venturing Into Ozone Processing?
For Additional Information, Contact:
Appendix 4: Food Irradiation
Appendix 5: Irradiation: A Safe Measure for Safer Iceberg Lettuce and Spinach
Appendix 6: Pulsed Light Treatment
1. What is Pulsed Light treatment?
2. How is PL treatment dose quantified?
3. How does PL work?
4. Does PL treatment cause heating effects?
5. Can PL be used for processing all foods?
6. Does PL treatment have a negative effect on the quality of treated foods?
7. Are there PL units available commercially?
8. Is PL equipment safe to operate?
9. What is the regulatory status of Pulsed Light for use in commercial food applications?
10. Are any facilities available for developing PL applications before commercialization?
Appendix 7: Power Ultrasound
Why ultrasound?
How does ultrasound work?
Can all foods benefit from ultrasound processing?
How ultrasound inactivates microorganisms?
Will the process damage the product?
What is the shelf-life of sonicated products?
Is the technology commercially available?
Is the equipment safe to operate?
Has ultrasound been approved by regulatory agencies?
Color Plates
Index
