Table of Contents
About This BookConventions Used in This BookFoolish AssumptionsHow This Book Is OrganisedPart I: An Ancient People, Then and NowPart II: InvasionPart III: Indigenous ActivismPart IV: Contemporary Indigenous CulturesPart V: Dealing With Current IssuesPart VI: The Part of TensIcons Used in This BookWhere to Go from Here
Chapter 1: Understanding Indigenous AustraliaIndigenous Cultures: Then and NowAncient traditionsDiversity, diversity and more diversityContemporary painting, singing and dancingOld and new ways of storytellingAnd they can kick a ball!There Goes the NeighbourhoodThe takeover beginsThe colony spreadsLoss of landAnd children taken tooFighting BackThe right to be equalChanging the playing field‘We want our land back’Reconciliation, practical reconciliation and intervention‘Sorry’ — and then what?New Problems for an Old CultureBreaking the cycle of povertyChallenging the rules and regulationsSetting up Indigenous enterprisesDoing It for OurselvesChapter 2: Rich Past, Strong TraditionsThe First Australians60,000 Years of TraditionAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Populations TodayDefining who is an Indigenous personCounting the Indigenous population in AustraliaLocating where Indigenous people live todayA Note about the Torres Strait IslandsSaying G’Day‘Aboriginal’, ‘Torres Strait Islander’ or ‘Indigenous’?‘Aboriginal’ or ‘Aborigine’?Us mob: Koori, Goori or Murri; Noongar or Nunga?Opening an Event: Welcome to CountryWelcome or acknowledgement?What do I say?Whose land am I on?What It’s Like to Be an Aboriginal Person or a Torres Strait IslanderStereotypes of Indigenous peopleBut some of us have blond hair and blue eyes!Chapter 3: A Land of Cultural DiversityExploring the Indigenous Relationship to LandOral title deedsAccessing another’s countryCelebrating Cultural DiversityClans and nationsMore than 500 different nationsFreshwater people and saltwater peopleKinship and Totemic SystemsMoieties and skin namesTotemsTalking LanguagesWho speaks what now?Vulnerability of languagesComing TogetherTrade routesSonglinesMaintaining Links to Traditional CountryAboriginal land councilsIndigenous Land CorporationNational parksChapter 4: Traditional Cultural Values and PracticesGoing Back to the DreamtimeHow was the world made?The southern skyAn oral tradition of storytellingIndigenous WorldviewsSharing based on reciprocityRespecting the wisdom of EldersSeparating women’s business from men’s businessRespect for the environmentLiving with NatureHunting and gatheringBush foodBush medicineToolsControlling the EnvironmentFireHarvestingFish trapsContemporary Cultural Values
Chapter 5: First ContactsLooking for the Unknown Southern Land: Contact before 1770Meet the neighbours: The MacassansThe Dutch were hereAnd then came the English . . .Landing in Australia: Cook’s ArrivalCook’s instructionsJoseph Banks’ observationsEstablishing a British ColonySeeing through Indigenous Eyes: Perspectives on the Arrival‘We thought they were ghosts’‘Are they human?’Chapter 6: The Brits’ First Colony: 1788Captain Phillip and the First FleetThe long trip overThe Captain’s ordersEstablishing a Penal ColonyFirst impressionsA difficult startSeeing How the Locals Dealt with the New ArrivalsBennelongPemulwuyChapter 7: Pushing the Boundaries of the ColonyOpening Up the Land: White Settlement SpreadsSpreading Disease Far and WideMeeting Aboriginal ResistanceGrowing the British ColonyOver the mountainsTo Van Diemen’s LandInto Moreton BayThe Adelaide experimentDealing with Frontier ConflictA wealth of misunderstandingOfficial responsesRefuge at a cost: Missions and reservesIgnoring Prior Ownership: No TreatiesChapter 8: Land, Livestock and LossClashing Cultures: Conflict over LandAboriginal people, land grants and squattersConflict on the frontierAboriginal People and the Developing Pastoral EconomyOff the sheep’s backThe rise of the cattle industryAboriginal women and pastoralistsAsserting Rights and Other Acts of ResistanceThe petitions of William CooperThe Pilbara strikeThe Wave Hill walk-offChapter 9: Taking the ChildrenExamining the Ideology of Assimilation‘Making them white’‘Focus on the children’: Forget about the oldies‘For their own good’Formalising the Removal Policy: Rules and RegulationsThe impact on Indigenous childrenThe impact on Indigenous familiesAcknowledging the Stolen GenerationsThe report of the inquiry into the Stolen GenerationsThe official responseUnfinished Business: Reparations and CompensationSaying sorrySeeking legal justiceThe realities of litigation and compensation
Chapter 10: Citizenship RightsEarly Claims to Better TreatmentFlinders IslandCoranderrkCummeragunja reserveBritish Subjects, but Not Quite . . .Denying basic rightsFor their own ‘protection’The realities of assimilationExcluding Indigenous People from the ConstitutionThe states establish their powersA legal ability to discriminateWar Heroes: World War I and World War IIThe black diggersReturned soldiers and racismStill Denied EqualityDispossession increasesA piece of paper to say you’re whiteNot Taking It Lying DownIndigenous people organiseThe 1938 Day of MourningSteps Towards EqualityChapter 11: The 1967 ReferendumGrowing Awareness of Indigenous DisadvantageFCAA and FCAATSIThe Freedom RideThe Referendum Is AnnouncedGetting to ‘yes’: The constitutional campaignAustralia decidesLasting Legacies of the ReferendumThe power to legislateBut no protection against discriminationThe myths of the referendumThe unintended consequencesNot what was hoped for . . . so what next?Chapter 12: Land RightsEstablishing the Modern Land Rights MovementLinking land rights and social justiceSetting up the Tent EmbassyVisiting the Black PanthersComparing Land Rights with Native TitleLegislating Land RightsRecommending the Northern Territory Land Rights ActLooking at the New South Wales Land Rights ActFailing to Secure a National Land Rights SchemeFollowing the Mabo Case: A Finding for Native TitleA native title packageThe legacy of the Mabo caseExamining Public Reactions to Land ClaimsLooking At the Work Still to Be Done: Taking Back the LandChapter 13: The Era of ReconciliationStarting the Reconciliation ProcessThe Council for Aboriginal ReconciliationPaul Keating’s Redfern Park speechTrying to deliver on land and social justiceEstablishing the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander CommissionDefining the Aims of ATSICRecognition, rights and reformThe Unfinished Business of ReconciliationA pathway for reconciliation‘We call for a treaty’Why a treaty?Chapter 14 : Practical Reconciliation‘The Pendulum Has Swung Too Far’‘Practical reconciliation’ explainedWinding back Indigenous rightsThe history wars, or culture warsA walk across the bridgeA Human Rights ScorecardThe Abolition of ATSICAfter ATSICA new administrationThe National Indigenous CouncilShared Responsibility and Mutual ObligationEmergency! Emergency! The Northern Territory InterventionKey aspects of the Northern Territory Emergency ResponseObjection!Chapter 15 : The Apology and BeyondA New Government — A New Era?The apologyThe Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous PeoplesControlling Lives: The Intervention ContinuesEvaluating the Northern Territory interventionInternational criticismWorking on a Way ForwardConstitutional reformA new representative body?International benchmarks
Chapter 16: More than Rocks and Dots: Indigenous ArtUnderstanding the Role of Art in Indigenous CulturesConnecting to the spirit through artUsing art to informReading between the dots: Knowing what the symbols meanConsidering Indigenous Art around AustraliaRecognising rock artLooking at bark paintingDot, dot, dot . . . artAppreciating Indigenous craftsExamining Torres Strait Islander ArtContemplating Urban Indigenous ArtPulling no political punchesFinding out more about Indigenous photographersMoving in the Mainstream: Indigenous Art as a Means to an Economic EndRevealing Indigenous Art FraudChapter 17 : Singing and DancingTraditional Expression through Music and DanceThe sacred and the profaneBanging out a rhythmTraditional songsCultural danceCarrying a Tune: Contemporary Indigenous MusicSingers in the mainstreamBoth types: Country and westernRock and popJust a few of the bestHip-hop, rap and metal: Young people have their sayJumping into Modern Indigenous DanceThe Bangarra Dance Theatre and other Indigenous dance companiesTorres Strait Islander danceChapter 18: Indigenous Literature: We’ve Always Been StorytellersMoving From Oral to Written TraditionsWriting about the ‘Aborigine’ in Australian LiteratureWhite people writing about black peopleBlack people writing about black peopleEstablishing Indigenous LiteratureBreaking through with Indigenous novelsPutting it into verse: Aboriginal poetryPublishing Indigenous StoriesNot Putting Your Foot in It!Chapter 19: Per formance Stor y telling: Film, Theatre, Television and RadioActing the Part: Indigenous People in FilmsFilms about Indigenous peopleCameosTaking Over the CameraIndigenous filmmakersNoteworthy Indigenous filmsTelling it like it is: DocumentariesTreading the Black BoardsThe National Black TheatreIndigenous theatre companiesMust-see Indigenous playsAppearing on Mainstream ScreensNotable Indigenous television showsIndigenous media organisationsNational Indigenous TelevisionGetting onto Mainstream AirwavesNational Indigenous Radio ServiceKoori radioChapter 20: Indigenous People and SportA (Traditional) Sporting LifeMarngrookCoreedaOther traditional Indigenous gamesPlaying Them at Their Own GamesGetting in and having a goTeaching through sportSlipping on the Whites: CricketThe first Indigenous cricket teamIndigenous cricketers todayWomen’s cricketStepping Up in the Boxing RingThe boxing tentsTitle fightersWe Love Our Footy!Australian Rules FootballRugby leagueRugby unionSoccerTrack and FieldChampioning Other SportsAll-rounders at basketballExcelling at netballA few out of the box
Chapter 21: Social Issues: Health, Housing, Education and EmploymentA Note on StatisticsExamining Health IssuesDiscussing particular medical issues for Indigenous peopleWatching the emergence of Indigenous medical services and professionalsDetermining the future of Indigenous healthLooking at Housing ProblemsLearning about Education IssuesPrimary educationSecondary educationTertiary educationVocational education and training (VET)Education as a step up the ladderWorking On Employment ProblemsRealising why employment issues exist for Indigenous peopleRunning Indigenous businessesIndigenous Youth: The Future of Indigenous CommunitiesChapter 22: Legal and Governance IssuesLooking Back at Past Government PoliciesScrutinising Self-Determination, Sovereignty and Self-RepresentationSelf-determination and sovereigntySelf-representationReading the Australian Constitution: A Framework for Laws and PoliciesThe 1967 referendumThe 1999 referendumDiscussing Indigenous People and the Criminal Justice SystemExamining the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in CustodyInspecting the relationship between Indigenous people and policeRecognising customary law and sentencingProposing Legal and Constitutional Reform
Chapter 23 : Ten Important Indigenous Cultural SitesUluru, Northern TerritoryKata Juta, Northern TerritoryNitmiluk, Northern TerritoryWindjana Gorge, Western AustraliaDaintree Rainforest, North QueenslandMungo National Park, New South WalesYeddonba, VictoriaNgaut Ngaut, South AustraliaWybalenna, TasmaniaThe Aboriginal Tent Embassy, CanberraChapter 24: Ten Indigenous FirstsThe First Indigenous Australian to Visit Great Britain: 1793The First Indigenous Cricket Team Tour: 1868The First Indigenous ‘Pop Star’: 1963The First Indigenous Person to be Australian of the Year: 1968The First Indigenous Person to be Elected to the Australian Parliament: 1971The First Indigenous Lawyer: 1976The First Indigenous School Principal: 1990The First Indigenous Person to Make a Feature Film: 1992The First Indigenous Surgeon: 2006The First Indigenous Artist to Break $2 Million for an Artwork: 2010Chapter 25 : Ten Myths about Indigenous People‘Indigenous People Have a Problem with Alcohol’‘Indigenous People Are a Dying Race’‘Indigenous People Who Live in Urban Areas Have Lost Their Culture’‘Indigenous People Were Killed Off in Tasmania’‘Indigenous People Are Addicted to Welfare’‘Too Much Money Is Spent on Indigenous People’‘Real Indigenous People Live in Remote Areas’‘Indigenous Organisations Mismanage Money and Are Prone to Nepotism’‘Indigenous Culture Is Violent and Accepts Abuse of Women and Children’‘Indigenous Self-Determination Has Been Tried but It Has Failed’Chapter 26 : Ten Key Legal DecisionsR v Jack Congo Murrell: 1836The Gove Land Rights Case: 1971Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen: 1982The Mabo Case: 1992The Wik Case: 1996Kruger v Commonwealth: 1997The Hindmarsh Island Bridge Case: 1998Gunner and Cubillo: 2000The Yorta Yorta Case: 2002The Trevorrow Case: 2007
Indigenous Australia For Dummies®
Wiley Publishing Australia Pty Ltd
Indigenous Australia For Dummies®
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Cataloguing-in-Publication data:
Author: Behrendt, Larissa, 1969–.
Title: Indigenous Australia For Dummies / Larissa Behrendt.
ISBN: 978 1 74216 963 7 (pbk.)
Notes: Includes index.
Subjects: Aboriginal Australians — History
Aboriginal Australians — Ethnic identity.
Aboriginal Australians — Social conditions.
Aboriginal Australians — Legal status, laws, etc
Australia — Social life and customs.
Dewey Number: 305.89915
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About the Author
Larissa Behrendt is of Eualeyai and Kamillaroi descent, peoples of the north-western New South Wales. She is Professor of Law and Director of Research at the Jumbunna Indigenous House of Learning at the University of Technology, Sydney.
She graduated with a Bachelor of Laws and Bachelor of Jurisprudence from the University of New South Wales and was the first Aboriginal Australian to graduate from Harvard Law School when she gained her Master of Laws in 1994 and Senior Doctorate of Jurisprudence in 1998.
Larissa is a member of the Academy of Social Sciences of Australia and of the Australian Academy of Law, a Commissioner at the Land and Environment Court and the Alternate Chair of the Serious Offenders Review Board.
She is the author of several books on Indigenous legal issues. She won the 2002 David Unaipon Award and a 2005 Commonwealth Writers’ Prize for her novel Home. Her novel, Legacy, won a Victorian Premier’s Literary Award in 2010.
Larissa is a Board Member of the Museum of Contemporary Art and Chair of the Bangarra Dance Theatre. She was the inaugural chair of National Indigenous Television Ltd. Larissa is the Ambassador of the Gawura Aboriginal campus at St Andrew’s Cathedral School.
She was named as 2009 National Aborigines and Islanders Day Observance Committee (NAIDOC) Person of the Year and 2011 New South Wales Australian of the Year.
Author’s Acknowledgements
With thanks to everyone at Wiley (especially Rebecca Crisp, Hannah Bennett and Zoë Wykes). Special thanks to editor Kerry Davies. Thanks also to Amanda Porter and Terry Priest. Also sincere thanks to Michael McDaniel, my mother Raema Behrendt and my husband Michael Lavarch.
Dedication
For my brother, Jason Behrendt, with thanks for your wisdom and heart.
Publisher’s Acknowledgements
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Acquisitions, Editorial and Media Development
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The author and publisher would like to thank the following organisations for their permission to reproduce copyright material in this book:
• Page 32: Unpublished paper ‘Aboriginal Citizenship Conference’ by Professor Peter Read, ANU, February 1996.
• Page 73: National Archives of Australia. NAA: A6135,K10/12/74/9
• Page 86: NLA.PIC-AN24526893 Engraving by James Neagle. Reproduced with permission from the National Library of Australia.
• Page 88: State Library of Victoria; Accession No: 30328102131553/7, Image No: pb000329
• Page 89: © EcoPrint / Shutterstock.com
• Page 95: State Library of Victoria; Accession Number: H14164; Image Number: b28462
• Page 116: State Records Authority of New South Wales
• Page 126: © Newspix
• Page 141: From Prime Minister Kevin Rudd, MP — Apology to Australia’s Indigenous peoples; Wednesday, February 13, 2008, Parliament of Australia, Department of Parliamentary Services
• Page 173: © Fairfax Photo Library / Ted Golding
• Page 190; Table 12-1: Resolving Indigenous Land Disputes, Larissa Behrendt and Loretta Kelly, The Federation Press, 2008, p. 40. Reproduced with permission.
• Page 206: From Prime Minister Paul Keating, MP, Redfern Park address, 10 December 1992
• Page 215: NLA.PIC-AN24526893 Photograph by Loui Seselja. Reproduced with permission from the National Library of Australia
• Pages 215–216: Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation, 27 May 2000
• Page 258: © Newspix / Brenton Edwards
• Page 265: © Newspix / Mark Calleja
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Foreword
It is an unhappy fact that most Australians know far too little about the early settlement of Australia and about the relationship of those settlers with the Indigenous population.
The question of our own history ought to be a significant part of every school’s curriculum and we all need to work for a better understanding of that history. Unfortunately, in public debates there are sharply differing views. One view speaks of the reality, of the harshness, of the dispossession and alienation of many Indigenous people throughout much of Australia. The other view tries to claim that these things did not occur. Somehow this argument needs to be put to rest.
This book is an important contribution to the debate and to our understanding, in straightforward terms, of the relationship between early Australians especially and Indigenous Australians. It underlines the fact that non-Indigenous people have throughout our history made decisions of great significance for Indigenous people in different parts of the country, without taking their views adequately into account. Unfortunately, this attitude still continues.
Recent governments have failed to consult closely with Indigenous communities in various parts of Australia. Two or three years ago when I was travelling through the Kimberley, I spoke with Indigenous people and asked them how they saw this consultation. In simple terms they said, ‘Well, Canberra makes up its mind what is good for us, and consultation consists of trying to persuade us what Canberra has decided is indeed good for us.’ None of us would really call this consultation.
Above all, Australian governments must learn to treat Indigenous Australians with respect, and work on programs with Indigenous leadership in different communities so that there can be Indigenous ownership of the programs as they develop.
Indigenous Australia For Dummies is an important contribution to the broad debate and to a better understanding of our past history. Hopefully it will influence future events.
The Rt Hon. Malcolm Fraser AC CH
Former Prime Minister of Australia
Introduction
Understanding the history and culture of Australia is impossible without understanding the country’s Indigenous peoples. And understanding Australia’s Indigenous peoples is reliant on understanding their history, traditional and contemporary cultural values, worldviews and experiences.
Indigenous Australia For Dummies looks at the experiences of Indigenous people, including their political activism and aspirations, and seeks to debunk some of the myths, especially the negative stereotypes, that still exist in Australian society about Indigenous people. Indigenous history and contemporary issues are very political matters in Australia. This book often looks at these matters from an Indigenous perspective, as well as canvassing alternative views.
About This Book
Indigenous Australia For Dummies is a general reference book targeting audiences who don’t know much about Australia’s Indigenous peoples but are keen to know more. It looks at both historical and contemporary issues. The book is designed to give readers a good general knowledge of all the issues covered and hopefully inspire them to then read more detailed writings on what can be very complex topics. This book can be read straight through or read selectively by topic, because each chapter is self-contained.
Conventions Used in This Book
Australia’s Indigenous peoples are made up of Aboriginal people — who live all around the country — and Torres Strait Islanders, who settled the many small islands to the north of Cape York Peninsula in Queensland.
Terminology is complex when it comes to Indigenous identity in Australia. The term Indigenous is used in this book to describe both Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders. The term Aboriginal is used when referring to matters that apply only to Aboriginal people; similarly with the use of the term Torres Strait Islanders. The fact that some Aboriginal people don’t like to be called ‘Indigenous’ is also important to remember.
Because Indigenous languages in Australia were originally oral languages — not written — nation or clan names often have multiple spellings. Regional variations on pronunciation have also led to more than one spelling for other words. Throughout the text, when referring to specific nations or clans, I have adopted the most commonly used spelling.
Note: As both the author of this book and an Aboriginal person myself, if it sounds like I’m telling the story as an insider, I am.
On a different note, to help you get the information you need as fast as possible, this book uses several conventions:
Bold words make the key terms and phrases in bulleted lists jump out and grab your attention.
Italics signal that a word is an important defined term.
Monofont
is used to signal a web address.
Sidebars, text separated from the rest of the type in grey boxes, are interesting but generally optional reading. You won’t miss anything critical if you skip the sidebars. If you choose to read the sidebars, though, you can benefit from some additional and interesting information.
Foolish Assumptions
This book assumes the following about you, the reader:
That you have a rudimentary understanding of Australian history — such as that Australia was colonised by the British in 1788
That you have a basic knowledge of Australian geography — or that at least you’re able to look up different places on a map!
How This Book Is Organised
This book is divided into six parts plus a glossary. You can read the book in order or you can simply go directly to a topic that interests you. You can use the table of contents and the index to find topics quickly. The glossary lets you cut to the chase on any terms you may want to clarify. Here’s a summary of what each of the parts of this book covers.
Part I: An Ancient People, Then and Now
The chapters in Part I look at the diversity and richness of Indigenous cultures both before and after colonisation. They look at where Indigenous people live now, how they adapted to their environment in order to survive, and the cultural values and beliefs that guide Indigenous worldviews.
Part II: Invasion
Part II examines the interaction between Indigenous people and the colonists who arrived and never left. It looks at the growth of the British colonies in Australia and the impact on and reactions of Indigenous people.
Part III: Indigenous Activism
This part continues to look at the responses of Indigenous people to the colonisation of their lands. It looks at their political campaigns to gain the same rights as other Australian citizens, and examines attempts to change the Australian Constitution and the actions taken over the years to recover their rights to their traditional lands.
Part IV: Contemporary Indigenous Cultures
Indigenous cultures have a rich tradition of art, dance and music that’s as vibrant today as it was before colonisation. They also have a strong tradition of storytelling, which is explored in contemporary mediums such as film, books and broadcasting. Indigenous spiritual traditions, which are often explored, expressed and explained in Indigenous cultural practices, are also pervasive in contemporary Indigenous cultures. And Indigenous people haven’t just contributed to broader Australian cultural life through their creative arts; they have also done so with their sporting prowess. This part covers all of these avenues of cultural expression.
Part V: Dealing With Current Issues
The chapters in this part tackle some of the difficult issues facing Indigenous people today — such as lower literacy rates, poorer housing and higher unemployment levels — but they also examine some of the policies and programs that are working to meet these challenges.
Part VI: The Part of Tens
This part looks at some inspirational ‘firsts’ for the Indigenous community. It also identifies important cultural sites, some of the myths about Indigenous people and some important legal decisions.
Icons Used in This Book
Throughout this book, the following icons are used to help you identify when you’re about to learn something special, quirky or significant.
This is important information about Indigenous cultures that allows you to better understand Indigenous people.
Many myths, misunderstandings and stereotypes about Indigenous people have become widespread since European settlement of Australia. This information straightens out a few of those things.
Information adjacent to this icon helps to give a deeper understanding of the topic being discussed.
This is specialised information, often legal in nature, that explains terms or gives the background to a topic.
This icon denotes a piece of advice about the subject matter being discussed that helps you to learn more.
Where to Go from Here
You can approach this book any way you like. You can read from start to finish — and perhaps skip some things along the way that you already know or are less interested in. Or you can go straight to the topics you’re most interested in and dive right in there. For Dummies books are meant to be fun to read as well as informative, so go ahead and enjoy!
Part I
An Ancient People: Then and Now
Glenn Lumsden
‘Nullius?!? What’s Latin for “Been here for 60 000 years”?’
In this part . . .
Aboriginal people have been in Australia for at least 60,000 years; Torres Strait Islanders at least 2,500 years. As the Australian environment changed over that span of time, Indigenous peoples’ cultures adapted as well. By the time the British arrived in 1788 to establish their colony, Indigenous cultures were rich and diverse. They remain that way today in their contemporary forms.
This part gives you an overview of why it’s important to understand Indigenous history, cultures and values, both traditional and contemporary. Here, you get to find out about Indigenous worldviews, bush tucker and languages. This part also gives you a bit of a heads-up about protocols when addressing Indigenous people or holding an event on traditional lands.
Chapter 1
Understanding Indigenous Australia
In This Chapter
Exploring traditions and celebrating vibrant Indigenous contemporary cultures
Examining the effects of colonisation on Australia’s Indigenous peoples
Looking at the struggles and successes of the Indigenous political movement
Identifying key challenges and possible solutions to ensure a better future
The Aboriginal people of Australia are said to be the custodians of the world’s oldest living culture. Indigenous Australians — Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders — have worldviews that focus on the interconnectedness between people and their environment, and the bonds they have with each other. They are also an important part of the Australian story. Modern Australia can’t be understood without also considering the significance of its Indigenous peoples and their cultures in that story.
The colonisation of Australia devastated Indigenous people and cultures — populations were decimated, traditional lands and means of self-sufficiency were taken, and government policies aimed at assimilation legitimised the taking of Indigenous children from their families so they could grow up as ‘white’ Australians. But, although this was a difficult period, the story of how Indigenous people — and their cultures — survived is uplifting.
This chapter gives you an overview of Australia’s history through Indigenous eyes, covering how government practices were able to control the lives of Indigenous people, even up until recent times, and what they did to defend themselves, their rights and their country. It gives you a quick look at the breadth of contemporary Indigenous culture and political action that celebrates their very survival. And it also looks briefly at how Indigenous people are tackling some of the major challenges they face today — lower levels of literacy, higher levels of unemployment, higher levels of poverty and poorer health than other Australians.
Understanding these aspects of Indigenous history and cultures enables you to gain a greater insight into who Indigenous people are and what their cultures are like, what issues they face today and some of the solutions being employed to meet these challenges.
Indigenous Cultures: Then and Now
More than 500 different Aboriginal nations existed at the time the British colonised Australia — possibly up to one million people in total. They had developed over 60,000 years, adjusting to changes in the environment and landscape. The arrival of the British in 1788, however, had a fundamental impact on Indigenous cultures. Over the next century, as colonies spread far and wide, people were separated from their traditional lands, affecting their ability to practise traditional ceremonies. But Indigenous cultures were resilient and, even in the face of such overwhelming change, they still adapted.
Today, Indigenous people live across Australia in communities in urban, rural and remote areas. Although they were once considered to be a dying, inferior race, their increasing populations and continuing cultural practices show that contemporary Indigenous cultures are vibrant and still very much alive. Chapter 2 outlines the initial decline and later growth of the Indigenous population since colonisation, as well as the cultural protocols of how to address Indigenous people in different areas of Australia.
Ancient traditions
Indigenous cultures across Australia had strong connections to their traditional land. They relied on it to provide them with everything they needed to survive — food, shelter, tools and medicine. And they needed each other as well. Nations were divided into clans, which were large extended families, perhaps as small as 30 people in some cases. In such small groups, everyone had to pitch in and people were very reliant on each other.
These circumstances gave rise to cultural values that focused on this interconnectedness. Through complex totemic systems, Indigenous people were reminded of their connection with nature, each other and their ancestors. They also believed in respect and responsibility for country, and respect for the wisdom and authority of Elders. Chapter 4 delves into traditional practices and beliefs, and Chapter 23 describes some of the cultural sites that are still important for Indigenous peoples today.
Diversity, diversity and more diversity
Although Indigenous cultures around Australia shared many values and had similar worldviews, great diversity was also present, explained to a large extent by the vastly different environments and climates across Australia. Indigenous communities living by the ocean had different ways of life, different technologies and different practices from Indigenous communities living in the middle of Australia in arid desert areas. However, across the country, large gatherings of several clans took place for ceremonial purposes, and trading routes spread across the continent. See Chapter 3 for more on cultural diversity, in both traditional and contemporary contexts.
Indigenous cultures have remained strong and vibrant across Australia. Even in contemporary forms — using new technology or incorporating aspects of other cultures — they maintain a strong connection to traditional practices. Chapter 25 examines, and debunks, some of the myths that have developed over the years about Indigenous people.
Contemporary painting, singing and dancing
Art, song and dance were key aspects of traditional cultural practice, mostly engaged in for ceremonial purposes, and retain a strong position in contemporary cultures.
Indigenous art has become a worldwide sensation, with some pieces attracting prices in the tens, even hundreds, of thousands of dollars. This industry hasn’t, however, translated into wealth for the artists. Chapter 16 looks in detail at some of the successes in the Indigenous art world.
Indigenous songs were one of the most fragile parts of Indigenous cultures, being some of the first things that were lost with colonisation. Today, however, Indigenous people are strongly engaged with music — particularly country and western music! Younger Indigenous people have also embraced hip-hop music as a way of expressing their views and aspirations. Indigenous dance has emerged as a leading contemporary Indigenous artform, blending traditional dancing with more modern styles. Indigenous dance companies have flourished around Australia. See Chapter 17 for some of the best of Indigenous Australia’s musicians and dancers.
Old and new ways of storytelling
Indigenous cultures have a storytelling tradition and Indigenous people have embraced new ways of getting their message across. Indigenous playwrights, theatre directors and film directors have also employed Indigenous actors to tell Indigenous stories. Indigenous people have also set up their own national radio service and television service, both complementing the many regional radio and television services set up by Indigenous communities. See Chapter 19 for more on the development of these media, as well as the establishment of the National Black Theatre, one of Australia’s first political theatres.
Although Indigenous cultures originally had an oral tradition with no written languages, Indigenous storytellers have now turned their hand to the written word. For a long time, Indigenous people had stories written about them by white anthropologists, linguists, historians and writers but, since the 1970s, Indigenous people have had an increasing desire to tell their own stories themselves. Since then, Indigenous writing has crossed over into many genres, including crime novels and women’s popular fiction. Chapter 18 covers Indigenous writing and publishing in detail.
And they can kick a ball!
Australia’s Indigenous peoples lived hunter-gatherer lifestyles. This meant they spent a lot of time moving and had a nutritious diet. It was a way of life that kept people strong and healthy. Perhaps because of this traditional way of life, Indigenous people have excelled as athletes. Across many sports — but especially football and athletics — Indigenous people have made a sizeable contribution to Australia’s sporting prowess. Sportspeople are good role models for Indigenous young people and often work in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities as mentors, assisting with building confidence and self-esteem, and encouraging young people to be active, fit and healthy. You can find more information on leading Indigenous sportspeople and the work they do in Chapter 20.
There Goes the Neighbourhood
Understanding contemporary Indigenous cultures and worldviews is largely reliant on understanding how Australia’s Indigenous peoples have been treated during the country’s comparatively brief European history.
Lieutenant James Cook (later Captain) claimed the eastern coast of Australia for the British in 1770. At the time, the agreement among the large, powerful colonising countries such as Britain, Spain and France was that lands like Australia, populated only by natives who were seen to be inferior, could be claimed by the colonial power that found them first. This was known as the doctrine of discovery. (Chapter 5 examines this concept and some of the European explorations that led to it.) Indigenous people could have had no idea that, after 1770, their world would change as it did.
The takeover begins
In 1778, the First Fleet arrived in Sydney Cove and established a penal colony. The settlement was designed to assist with the problem of overcrowding in British prisons — grown worse since the American revolution stopped prisoners being sent there — and to establish a claim to the territory against other colonial powers, especially the French. With the establishment of the colony, life for Indigenous Australians would never be the same again. Chapter 6 explores the ramifications of this first colony.
The colony spreads
The colony at Sydney Cove soon spread. The colony needed agricultural industries such as wheat, sheep and cattle to survive, and for that it needed land. The British eventually set up colonies around the country, including:
Van Diemen’s Land, which became known as Tasmania
Port Phillip District, in what is now Victoria
Moreton Bay, near what is now Brisbane
Adelaide, in South Australia
The impact on Aboriginal people of the establishment of these colonies was profound. One of the initial problems for them was the effect of the diseases brought by the British. Aboriginal people had no immunity to smallpox, colds, flu and measles, and populations were decimated as these diseases spread. Chapter 7 looks in detail at the impact of this expansion.
Loss of land
As the colonies were established and spread out from their initial boundaries, Aboriginal people were pushed off their land. They also lost their livelihoods — their ability to feed and shelter their families — and cultural practices were disrupted. This led inevitably to conflict — often violent conflict — as Aboriginal people resisted, as best they could, the attempts to dispossess them of their land. Although this resistance (mostly setting fire to buildings and infrastructure, and killing stock), did stall the expansion of the frontier in some places, eventually the colonists, with their superior firepower and increasing numbers, gained the upper hand.
In many places, Aboriginal people found themselves pushed to the margins of towns and forced to live on specially designated reserves. In some cases, Aboriginal people were able to live on their traditional lands on pastoral stations and were given very basic rations, in exchange for work for the station owner. See Chapter 8 for more on this uneasy alliance.
And children taken too
As the colonists got the upper hand, they attempted to assimilate Aboriginal people into European cultural ways. They believed that one of the most effective ways to do this was to remove Aboriginal children from their families and bring them up away from them and their culture, sometimes placing them in institutions, other times adopting them into white families. This also affected Torres Strait Islander people, after missions were established in the Torres Strait in the late 1800s and as Torres Strait Islanders began to settle on the mainland.
All states and territories had laws that permitted the removal of Indigenous children from their families. Some people administering the policy genuinely believed that removing Indigenous children from their families would give them a better life. Despite those good intentions, the practice often had devastating consequences for the children taken away and the families they left behind. Chapter 9 examines this painful issue in detail.
Fighting Back
From the very start of the colonisation process, Aboriginal people resisted the infringement of their rights to their lands and the impact on their communities and cultures. Over the years, Aboriginal communities continued to assert their rights to their lands and to protest their unequal treatment. Torres Strait Islanders soon joined them.
The right to be equal
When the British established their colony at Sydney Cove, they transported their laws as well as their people. Although it was asserted that the laws and their protections applied equally to Aboriginal people and colonists, in practice this wasn’t the case.
Not only were Aboriginal people’s rights to their lands denied, but they were also rarely offered protection from frontier violence. They were subject to regulations about where they could live, who they could marry, and whether and where they could work. They weren’t entitled to the same wages as other workers doing the same jobs. In most places, they couldn’t vote.
Aboriginal people sought to challenge these restrictions, petitioning governments and even the British Crown. A key focus of their advocacy was equal treatment — particularly the rights to own and farm their own land and to have the same rights to citizenship as other Australians. Chapter 10 covers some of the more notable examples of Indigenous people’s claims to citizenship rights, and some of the early organisations set up to fight for them. That chapter also lists some of the Indigenous leaders who emerged throughout the fight for the right to be equal.
Changing the playing field