Contents

Postsecondary Education for American Indian and Alaska Natives: Higher Education for Nation Building and Self-Determination

Bryan McKinley Jones Brayboy, Amy J. Fann, Angelina E. Castagno, and Jessica A. Solyom

ASHE Higher Education Report: Volume 37, Number 5

Kelly Ward, Lisa E. Wolf-Wendel, Series Editors

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ISSN 1551-6970 electronic ISSN 1554-6306 ISBN 978-1-1183-3883-4

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Advisory Board

The ASHE Higher Education Report Series is sponsored by the Association for the Study of Higher Education (ASHE), which provides an editorial advisory board of ASHE members.

Executive Summary

American Indian and Alaska Native enrollment in higher education has more than doubled in the past thirty years, yet American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) students continue to be significantly underrepresented in institutions of higher education and continue to face barriers that impede their academic success. This underrepresentation is troubling, given that many Indigenous students indicate having expectations of attending and graduating college from as early as elementary school. This monograph explores the state of higher education for American Indian and Alaska Native peoples in the United States. Beginning with an examination of the legacy of Western education in Indigenous communities and the experiences of Indigenous students in the K–12 system, we explore the factors that influence college going and, upon enrollment in institutions of higher education, the factors that influence college completion. From pre-K–16 to students in graduate programs, whether attending school in rural or urban settings, in mainstream or tribally controlled institutions, we explore the role of academic institutions and personnel, family and community, and tribal nations in student achievement. Additionally, we explore the experiences of AI/AN graduates in their transition from student to faculty. We conclude by offering a number of recommendations for how to improve the success of Indigenous students and faculty.

As we walk the reader through what we know about higher education for Indigenous students, we weave central themes of nation building, sovereignty, self-determination, Indigenous knowledge systems, as well as the role of culturally responsive teaching and learning throughout the discussion. We argue that the success of Indigenous students depends on institutional practices and tribal nation support; we also argue that attention to nation-building strategies is a vital part of academic success. Additionally, we believe institutions of higher education must address institutional-specific issues related to the recruitment, retention, and graduation, and that their efforts will be most successful if they become more knowledgeable about the unique experiences, expectations, and goals of Indigenous people(s) and nations. Conversely, Indigenous communities, families, and nations also play an important role in supporting and facilitating student success. Connections to ideas of sovereignty, self-determination, and nation building highlight potential paths and areas of strength for American Indian/Alaska Natives in institutions of higher education. We believe that there is, in fact, a role for higher education in Indigenous communities and nations.

The monograph is organized in the following manner: In the first chapter we present a cursory overview of the reasons for which Indigenous students and communities remain absent from the fabric of mainstream institutions of higher education.

The next chapter, “Framing the Conversation,” builds on the recognition that Indigenous students often pursue higher education as a means to improve the myriad ways in which they can serve their families, communities, and tribal nations. The goal of serving to benefit and strengthen Indigenous communities is one part of the larger concept of nation building and is a fundamental part of this monograph. The concept of nation building is, in fact, the glue that binds together the data-driven chapters in the monograph. Drawing on the work of various disciplines and scholars, including Indigenous legal and education scholars such as David Wilkins, Duane Champagne, Jo-Ann Archibald, Marie Battiste, Rebecca Tsosie, Taiaike Alfred, and Vine Deloria, Jr., we explore the importance of Indigenous knowledge systems, tribal nation building, and culturally responsive schooling and their implications for American Indian success in institutions of higher education. The remaining chapters extend and apply the concepts introduced in this chapter.

A chapter entitled “Postsecondary Access for Indigenous Students” focuses on postsecondary access to higher education for Indigenous students. Issues of high school completion, achievement on standardized college entrance exams, and the role of schools and college counselors in developing a college-going culture among students at the K–12 level are explored in detail. Additionally, the influence of family and cultural practices in academic achievement are explored as sources of strength and support for Indigenous students.

“American Indian and Alaska Native College Students” looks specifically at the undergraduate experience for Indigenous students. We focus on enrollment patterns, particularly in terms of graduation and attrition rates, and explore the myriad factors that contribute to the success of Indigenous students in these settings in addition to the challenges faced.

The next two chapters discuss the postbaccalaureate experiences of Indigenous graduate students and faculty within postsecondary institutions. We present some of the unique challenges in these settings. We conclude by discussing the importance that persisting in these settings presents for Indigenous students and faculty members as well as the tribal communities they serve.

The final chapter presents a discussion about the policy, practice, and research implications of the discussions offered throughout the monograph. We focus on the implications for practices at multiple levels—ranging from the local/tribal, state, and federal level—and suggest that both educational institutions and tribal nations must consider the long-term effects past, existing, and future educational practices present for Indigenous students and the continued success of Indigenous communities.

A Note on Author Contributions

Any coauthored work requires input from multiple sources and different effort on parts of the text. We wanted to offer a brief note on the division of labor in this text in order to make explicit the ways that we each contributed to the writing of this text. All of the authors significantly contributed to the production of this text.

Bryan, Angelina, and Jessica originally drafted the introduction of the text, once the other chapters had been written. Amy authored a small portion of the introduction. Angelina, Jessica, and Bryan authored “Framing the Conversation.” Bryan and Angelina, working with Jessica, wrote “American Indian and Alaska Native College Students.” There are parts of the chapter that include Amy’s work from another project; Bryan, Angelina and Jessica revised the original draft. Amy authored “Postsecondary Access for Indigenous Students,” “American Indian and Alaska Native Graduate Students,” and “American Indian and Alaska Native Faculty.” Jessica and Bryan assisted with literature searches for “American Indian and Alaska Native Faculty.” Jessica, Angelina, and Bryan made the connections to nation building more evident in “Postsecondary Access for Indigenous Students,” “American Indian and Alaska Native Graduate Students,” and “American Indian and Alaska Native Faculty.” All four authors worked to revise these chapters. Bryan, Angelina, and Jessica authored “Where Do We Go From Here?” Hints of the recommendations appeared in a policy report that Bryan published in 2007. Amy made additional connections to federal policies. At the end of the project, all four authors made minor (and in some cases substantive) revisions to the entire text.

Bryan, Angelina, and Jessica will donate all of their proceeds from this manuscript to assist American Indians and Alaska Natives in institutions of higher education.

Foreword

When colleges and universities talk about multiculturalism and diversity, there is a common assumption that all underrepresented groups are included. But, frequently and typically, American Indian and Alaskan Native students, faculty, and administrators are overlooked in these conversations because of their limited presence on most college campuses. They are also underrepresented in many studies and in most data sources (institutional and national). The “n” is often just too small for Native Americans to be counted or included in a meaningful way. When Native American populations are included or discussed it tends to be from a deficit perspective—they are least likely to earn degrees, graduate from high school, and be successful based on most traditional measures of success used in higher education. As a result, Indigenous populations are often overlooked, misunderstood, and narrowly represented in most higher education research and most institutional strategies.

Admirably filling the void of comprehensive and holistic information about Native American populations in higher education is this monograph—Postsecondary Education for American Indians and Alaskan Natives: Higher Education for Nation Building and Self-Determination. The authors, Bryan Brayboy, Amy Fan, Angelina Castagno, and Jessica Solyom, offer what has been missing in research and discussions about Native Americans and other Indigenous populations in higher education. They provide comprehensive information and data about Native American populations, culled from a variety of sources both traditional and nontraditional. They also provide a much needed conceptual lens—that of nation building—that helps move beyond deficit conversations to meaningful awareness of the importance of the presence and success of Native American communities in higher education. The authors masterfully explain how this success is important to Native American students as well as their larger communities. Issues associated with sovereignty and self-determination set Native Americans apart from standard discourses about “minority” populations and diversity in higher education. The history of Native Americans in society in general, provides a unique context for understanding the educational experiences of Indigenous populations in the United States.

The monograph is brilliant in its treatment of basic background information that is useful to researchers, students, faculty, and practitioners wanting to know more about Native American populations and wanting to be more comprehensive in their research and conversations about diverse populations in higher education. The monograph pushes readers to think more critically about the context from which Native Americans come (both historically and in some instances with regard to place) and the context to which they contribute. If we just look at Native American students as another underrepresented minority that suffers from an array of problems in succeeding in traditional higher education, we fail to consider the totality of history and driving concepts like self-governance. This monograph demonstrates why it is not possible to portray the history and experiences of Native Americans in higher education accurately absent a holistic perspective.

In the ASHE monograph series as a whole we have intentionally addressed issues related to comprehensive understandings about diversity in higher education. Monographs, for example, by Marybeth Walpole on low SES students, by Rachelle Winkle-Wagner on cultural capital, and by Amy Bergeson on college choice and access, are complementary to this monograph on Indigenous students in higher education. However, this monograph really does stand alone in recognizing the unique situation and circumstances of a particular population (i.e., Native Americans) while providing a critical and theoretical lens through which to view the success of the Native American community in higher education. This is not a monograph that expresses the problems and deficits of an underrepresented minority; rather it offers a complex understanding of an important constituency that is rooted in the history and culture of Indigenous populations in the United States.

Above all else, you will find this monograph an informative, good read. It will appeal to and be helpful to multiple audiences, including college and university administrators, researchers, graduate students, and anyone interested in Native Americans in higher education. The monograph can serve as a model to many by showing the importance of looking at groups of students from a larger historical and cultural context and showing the importance of asking “what’s wrong with higher education” rather than asking “what’s wrong with ‘them’.” The concepts of sovereignty and nation building serve as important reminders for those within higher education to take into consideration not only where people come from, but also where they are going. We hope you learn from and enjoy this monograph as much as we did.

Kelly Ward and Lisa Wolf-Wendel

Series Editors

Acknowledgments

This monograph actually began to take shape in different parts of the United States simultaneously. In early 2000, Bryan was working on a piece for a journal article that offered an overview of the experiences of Indigenous undergraduate students in higher education. Six years later, he revised and expanded the overview with Angelina. Simultaneously, in the early part of the first decade of the twenty-first century, Amy was working on examining the transitions from high school to college and the role that tribal education departments played in Native students attending college. These pieces came together in this monograph; Jessica played a vital role in the past year in working on the nation-building components of this monograph. We acknowledge the early work of Bobby Wright, Michael Pavel, Arthur C. Parker, Vine Deloria, Jr., and John Tippeconnic III, and the more recent work of Heather Shotton, Lee Bitsoi, and Stephanie Waterman.

Bryan acknowledges Angelina and Jessica for working with him on this project over the last five years; they have been wonderful writing and thinking partners over the past eight years. He also wants to thank Amy for broaching the idea of a book-length manuscript as a way to bring the work together. Bryan is grateful to Bill Tierney for broaching the idea of an overview of American Indians in higher education in 2000; sadly, he was unable to finish that project, but Bill pressed for its completion. This monograph is partly his vision. Bryan’s colleague, Terri McCarty, has encouraged him in innumerable ways. Bryan’s friend and colleague Malia Villegas’ work on nation building among the Maori in Aotearoa/New Zealand and conversations around the concept of nation building inspired and guided him. Finally, Bryan would like to thank his spouse, Doris Warriner, and their children Quanah and Ely, for putting up with him while he worked on the project, at times forsaking familial responsibilities. He hopes for Quanah and Ely—two beautiful, Indigenous boys—that their experiences in college will be better than those described in this monograph.

Amy would like to thank all those who helped to make this monograph possible. Her gratitude extends to her coauthors for their hard work and insights on this project, other Native scholars whose research is referenced throughout this monograph, and the Association for the Study of Higher Education (ASHE) for providing a space for conversations about American Indian/Alaska Native higher education issues and how to improve postsecondary educational opportunities and outcomes for Native students and faculty. Without the support of ASHE, this monograph may not have come to fruition. Finally, Amy would like to acknowledge her family, friends, colleagues, and students who encourage and support her in this work.

Angelina is incredibly grateful to Bryan for his leadership on this project, as well as his consistent friendship and guidance. Many of her understandings about higher education, Indigenous communities, and collaboration have been shaped by Bryan. She also wants to thank her partner and husband, Tyler, for understanding when this project crept into family camping trips, thwarted attempts to enjoy a leisurely breakfast, and otherwise occupied her energy. Although her children, Tarek and Keelan, were too young to know what it meant when mom had to work, they provided inspiration for her to stay focused and work efficiently. She also could not have done this work without the support of her mom, who cared for her boys when she and Tyler could not. She dedicates this monograph to her mom, for her unwavering generosity.

Jessica, first and foremost, wishes to acknowledge and thank Dr. Bryan Brayboy, for mentoring her over the years, for serving as an academic and personal guide in her life, and for helping to refine her thinking on many of the ideas presented in this text, especially issues of sovereignty, self-determination, and nation building. She is additionally grateful to Angelina and Amy for inviting her on board to participate in the process of creating this monograph. Jessica is deeply grateful to the many Indigenous women and leaders whose strength and fortitude, whose voices and insight, have nurtured her thinking, guided her actions, and inspired her so much over the years. This work is dedicated to them and to the Indigenous youth whose dreams and everyday actions lead them to contribute to the peace and strength of their families and nation(s). Lastly, Jessica wishes to thank her family, especially her grandfather, for granting her the support, love, and inspiration for engaging in this work.