Contents
Cover
Half Title page
Title page
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Examples for the Application of X-Ray–Matter Interaction
1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum
1.3 X-Ray Light Sources
1.4 Fundamental Models to Describe X-Ray–Matter Interaction
1.5 Introduction to X-Ray–Matter Interaction Processes
1.6 Databases Relevant to Photon–Matter Interaction
References
Chapter 2: Atomic Physics
2.1 Atomic States
2.2 Atomic Processes
2.3 Effect of Plasma Environment
References
Chapter 3: Scattering of X-Ray Radiation
3.1 Scattering by Free Charges
3.2 Scattering by Atoms and Ions
3.3 Scattering by Gases, Liquids, and Amorphous Solids
3.4 Scattering by Plasmas
3.5 Scattering by Crystals
References
Chapter 4: Electromagnetic Wave Propagation
4.1 Electromagnetic Waves in Matter
4.2 Reflection and Refraction at Interfaces
4.3 Reflection by Thin Films, Bilayers, and Multilayers
4.4 Dispersive Interaction of Wavepackets with Materials
4.5 Kramers–Kronig Relation
References
Chapter 5: Electron Dynamics
5.1 Transition of Solids into Plasmas
5.2 Directional Emission of Photoelectrons
5.3 Electron Scattering
5.4 Energy Loss Mechanisms
5.5 Electron Dynamics in Plasmas
5.6 Statistical Description of Electron Dynamics
5.7 Bremsstrahlung Emission and Inverse Bremsstrahlung Absorption
5.8 Charge Trapping in Small Objects
References
Chapter 6: Short X-Ray Pulses
6.1 Characteristics of Short X-Ray Pulses
6.2 Generating Short X-Ray Pulses
6.3 Characterizing Short X-Ray Pulses
6.4 Characteristic Time Scales in Matter
6.5 Short-Pulse X-Ray–Matter Interaction Processes
6.6 Single-Pulse X-Ray Optics
References
Chapter 7: High-Intensity Effects in the X-Ray Regime
7.1 Intensity and Electric Field of Intense X-Ray Sources
7.2 High-X-Ray-Intensity Effects in Atoms
7.3 Nonlinear Optics
7.4 High-Intensity Effects in Plasmas
7.5 High-Field Physics
References
Chapter 8: Dynamics of X-Ray-Irradiated Materials
8.1 X-Ray–Matter Interaction Time Scales
8.2 The Influence of X-Ray Heating on Absorption
8.3 Thermodynamics of Phase Transformation
8.4 Ablation
8.5 Intensity Dependence of X-Ray–Matter Interaction
8.6 X-Ray-Induced Mechanical Damage
8.7 X-Ray Damage in Inertial Confinement Fusion
8.8 X-Ray Damage in Semiconductors
8.9 Damage to Biomolecules in X-Ray Imaging
References
Chapter 9: Simulation of X-Ray–Matter Interaction
9.1 Models for Different Time- and Length Scales
9.2 Atomistic Models
9.3 Statistical Kinetics Models
9.4 Hydrodynamic Models
References
Chapter 10: Examples of X-Ray–Matter Interaction
10.1 Interaction of Intense X-Ray Radiation with Atoms and Molecules
10.2 Interaction of Intense X-Ray Pulses with Atomic Clusters
10.3 Biological Imaging
10.4 X-Ray Scattering Diagnostics of Dense Plasmas
References
Index
The Author
Dr. Stefan P. Hau-Riege
Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory
Livermore, CA, USA
hauriege1@llnl.gov
Cover figure
Stefan P. Hau-Riege, Livermore
Using of programm Automatic PSF Generation Plugin, Version 1.0
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Preface
This monograph provides a coherent and current overview of the interaction of x rays with matter, specifically focussing on high-intensity short-pulse radiation. We discuss the relevant physical processes, including the interaction of the x-ray field with electrons, the coupling of electrons and ions, the microscopic and macroscopic changes in materials, and the feedback of these processes. We conclude by providing several examples taken from the recent scientific literature.
There are many books available that treat the interaction of x-ray radiation with matter at intensities that are sufficiently low so that the materials do not change. On the other end of the spectrum are plasma-physics books that discuss the interaction of high-intensity photon beams with plasmas. This book bridges these two extremes by providing a comprehensive coverage of the full spectrum of interactions of low- to high-intensity x-ray radiation with materials. It discusses how x rays affect the state of matter, and, in turn, how these changes affect x-ray–matter interaction.
Similar books have been published for the optical wavelength regime. In contrast, x-ray wavelengths are on the order of interatomic distances, and x-ray energies are comparable to the transition and ionization energies of atoms and ions. Therefore, the relevant physical processes are very different.
X-ray–matter interaction draws from various disciplines, ranging from atomic physics, laser physics, plasma physics, astrophysics, computational physics, materials science, to chemistry. Most elements of this book are scattered throughout the scientific literature and have been published in scientific journals and the more introductory materials in book form. We aim at enabling the reader to gain an understanding of the fundamentals and to get an idea of the current state of research efficiently without being bogged down by either the scientific jargon specific to each discipline or by the sheer volume of publications. This will be especially useful for young researchers and occasional practitioners of this field who need to learn about the most relevant aspects of the various fields quickly.
The recent advent of new powerful x-ray sources such as x-ray free-electron lasers make the release of this book very timely. Within the context of large-scale facilities, the scientific community at large is currently shifting its focus away from particle physics toward photon science. The recent shutdown of the particle physics facility Barbar and the construction of the LCLS x-ray free-electron laser (FEL) in its place at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory in the USA is a testimony to this change. Numerous large-scale photon-science facilities producing EUV (extreme ultraviolet) and x-ray radiation are being built all over the world: The first EUV FEL at DESY in Germany became operational in 2005, Japan demonstrated an EUV FEL in 2006, and others are planned, for example in Italy, Switzerland, and the USA. To access the shorter wavelength regime, an x-ray free-electron laser has been built in the USA (LCLS), and others are in progress, including in Germany (XFEL) and in Japan (SCSS). In addition to these facilities, new x-ray synchrotron sources such as PETRA III at DESY will also be available soon.
In light of these developments, this book has several target audiences: (i) Young scientists, postdoctoral researchers, graduate students, and senior undergraduate students who recognize the exciting field of x-ray–matter interaction science, and want to participate in it, (ii) more experienced scientists who want to change their research focus toward photon science, and (iii) scientists from various disciplines, such as life sciences, biology, materials science, physics, and chemistry, that plan on applying these new facilities in their respective fields. The interdisciplinary nature of the field of x-ray–matter interaction may make this book even interesting for the more casual reader.
The prerequisite for this book is a basic understanding of mechanics, electrodynamics, and quantum mechanics, even though most basic concepts are briefly explained whenever they are introduced, and relevant and introductory literature is cited. In that sense, the readership level is advanced. We hope that the book still has appeal to the more experienced research worker (specialist).
We have tried to make this monograph self-contained by including reviews of the basic aspects of atomic physics, electrodynamic wave propagation, and electron dynamics, with a specific focus on aspects relevant to high-intensity x-ray–matter interaction. An introduction to the field of x-ray–matter interaction is given in Chapter 1, in which we give an overview of available x-ray sources, summarize the processes relevant to x-ray–matter interaction, and point out the key aspects relevant to high-intensity pulses. In Chapter 2, we discuss the atomic physics relevant to x-ray-irradiated matter. This subject is essential in order to understand x-ray absorption processes and the subsequent electron dynamics. In Chapter 2, scattering of x-ray radiation from atoms, molecules, and other aggregates of atoms and different media is discussed. In Chapter 2, we discuss the propagation of electromagnetic waves in different media, and especially focus on the intensity distribution of the electromagnetic field since this determines the interaction of x rays with materials. In Chapter 3, we discuss the dynamics of the electrons in x-ray-irradiated materials.
The following chapters focus on high-intensity, short x-ray pulses, motivated by the recent advent of x-ray free-electron lasers. In Chapter 6, we discuss the characteristics of short x-ray pulses and describe instrumentation to create and diagnose such pulses. We also include the effects of the pulse duration on x-ray–matter interaction processes. In the related Chapter 7, we discuss aspects of the interaction of high-intensity x-ray pulses with matter. Since x rays modify matter, their interaction with the material changes with time. This aspect is discussed in Chapter 8. In Chapter 9, we present modeling approaches for x-ray–matter interaction. Finally, in Chapter 10, we give some recent examples of high-intensity x-ray–matter interaction. This chapter is strongly biased by the research interests of the author.
I am deeply grateful to innumerable discussions with a large number of long-term colleagues, who over many years participated in carrying out calculations and experiments, and in interpreting the obtained results. It is a great pleasure to specifically mention valuable advice, help, and support from Elden Ables, Jennifer Alameda, John Arthur, Eduard Arzt, Sasa Bajt, Sherry Baker, Anton Barty, Brian Bennion, Karl Van Bibber, Richard Bionta, Michael Bogan, Sebastien Boutet, Carl Caleman, Jaromir Chalupksy, Henry Chapman, Rip Collins, Tilo Döppner, Paul Emma, James Evans, Gyula Faigel, Roger Falcone, Carsten Fortmann, Matthias Frank, Jerome Gaudin, Siegfried Glenzer, Jim Glosli, Bill Goldstein, Alexander Graf, Frank Graziani, Janos Hajdu, Rick Iverson, Verne Jacobs, Jacek Krzywinski, Jaroslav Kuba, Steve Lane, Dick Lee, Richard London, Stefano Marchesini, Marty Marinak, Dennis Matthews, Marc Messerschmidt, Paul Mirkarimi, Stefan Moeller, Michael Murillo, Michael Pivovaroff, Dave Richards, Dmitri Ryutov, Howard Scott, Marvin Seibert, Ryszard Sobierajski, Klaus Sokolowski-Tinten, Regina Soufli, John Spence, Eberhard Spiller, Fred Streitz, Hannah and Abraham Szöke, Michael Thomas, Nicusor Timneanu, Thomas Tschentscher, Jim Turner, and Chris Walton.
I would like to acknowledge my teachers and mentors over the years, who introduced me to the science and the scientific methods. I am especially appreciative to Detlef Heitmann from the Universität Hamburg, Judith Prybyla and Walter Brown from (formerly) AT&T Bell Laboratories, Carl Thompson from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harold Frost from Dartmouth College. I owe a debt of gratitude to the Studienstiftung des deutschen Volkes for supporting me early on in my career.
I thank the team at Wiley-VCH Verlag who have been a great help in publishing the manuscript, all the way from the initial planning stage to final production. I would explicitly like to recognize the Commissioning Editor Ulrike Fuchs, the Project Editor Ulrike Werner, and the copy editing of le-tex publishing services. I would like to thank the people who encouraged me to pursue and finish this project, in particular Jamie. Finally, I deeply acknowledge my friends and colleagues from the x-ray–matter interaction community for proofreading the manuscript and providing valuable comments and suggestions. Specifically, I thank Tilo Döppner, Carsten Fortmann, Richard London, Nina Rohringer, Eberhard Spiller, Jon Weisheit, and Beata Ziaja.
Fremont, January 2011
Stefan P. Hau-Riege