Men-at-Arms • 394
1914–15
Nigel Thomas PhD • Illustrated by Gerry Embleton
Series editor Martin Windrow
THE GERMAN EMPIRE & ARMY IN 1914
STRATEGY
UNIFORMS
THE PLATES
IN 1914 GERMANY, with 65 million inhabitants and an area of 20,871,408 square miles, dominated Central Europe. It was technically a federation of four kingdoms – Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony and Württemberg and 21 minor states. These latter comprised five grand duchies – Baden, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz and Oldenburg; two duchies – Anhalt and Brunswick; three principalities – Lippe, Schaumberg-Lippe and Waldeck; and three ‘free cities’ Bremen, Hamburg and Lübeck. Finally, eight minor states – the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar; Duchies of Saxe-Altenburg and Saxe-Coburg-Gotha; and the principalities of Reuß Senior Line, Reuß Junior Line, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt and Schwarzburg-Sondershausen – were collectively described as Thuringia. The eastern French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine were annexed by Germany in 1871 as an ‘imperial territory’. Prussian dominance of Germany was guaranteed by the appointment of the King of Prussia, Wilhelm II, as German Emperor (Deutscher Kaiser).
The German Armed Forces comprised the German Army (Deutsches Heer) including the Air Corps and the Imperial Navy (Kaiserliche Marine), with the Imperial Defence Troops (Kaiserliche Schutztruppen) defending the colonies.
In July 1914 the German Army comprised 840,000 men, the largest continental European army after that of Imperial Russia. It was a federal force, comprising the armies of the four kingdoms, their sizes officially regulated according to their percentage population share. The Prussian Army, which also included the smaller states, had 655,200 men (78 per cent of the German Army), the Bavarian Army, 92,400 (11 per cent); the Saxon Army, 58,800 (7 per cent); and the Württemberg Army, 33,600 (4 per cent). Each kingdom had its own ministry of war, general staff, and military units; but Prussia dominated, supplying the pre-war Great General Staff (Großer Generalstab) and integrating all units except the Bavarians into its battle order.
As head of state Wilhelm II was Supreme Commander (Oberster Kriegsherr) of the German Army. This vain and foolish man attempted to overrule his generals, but they usually subverted his militarily inept decisions. On 2 August 1914 he ordered general mobilisation and the formation of a General Headquarters (GHQ – Großes Hauptquartier) to direct the war, comprising the Kaiser’s personal staff, the Field Army General Staff (formerly Great General Staff), specialist officers, military officials, transport personnel and guards. It was based initially in Berlin; from 17 August 1914, in Koblenz; 30 August, Luxembourg; 4 September, Charleville-Mézières, north-eastern France; and 9 May 1915, Pleß (Pszczyna, Poland).
The GHQ, also called the Supreme Command (Oberste Heeresleitung – OHL) was headed by the Chief of the Field Army General Staff, GenObst Helmuth von Moltke the Younger. On 14 September 1914 Moltke was temporarily (from 3 November, permanently) replaced by GenLt (later Gen d.Inf) Erich von Falkenhayn. Moltke was assisted by a Quartermaster-General, who supervised Army rear areas – from 2 August 1914 GenLt Hermann von Stein; September, GenMaj (later GenLt) Werner von Voigts-Rhetz; November, GenMaj Adolf Wild von Hohenborn, and January 1915, GenLt Hugo Freiherr (Baron) von Freytag-Loringhoven.
Male military service lasted 29 years, from age 17 to 45. Recruits progressed through five categories: from 17 to 20, the Landsturm (Home Guard); from 21 to 22, half of the recruits to the Stehendes Heer (Standing Army), the rest to the Ersatzreserve (Supplementary Reserve); from 23 to 27, the Reserve (Reserve); from 28 to 38, the Landwehr (Territorial Army); and from 39 to 45, back to the Landsturm.
On general mobilisation this progression was suspended; all men aged 17-22 (and Ersatz reservists aged 21-22) joined the Standing Army. Thereafter, according to age, men joined the Reserve for front line service or the Landwehr for service in rear areas. On 15 August 1914 the semi-independent Landsturm was called out and personnel were retained beyond age 45 for the duration of the war.
Generaloberst Helmuth von Moltke the Younger (1848–1916), Chief of the General Staff 1906–14, wearing a general officers’ uniform in 1914. This comprises the M1910 peaked field cap; M1903 undress tunic Litewka with red collar patches and gold buttons. The general’s shoulder boards with visible red underlay and gold-plated crowned ‘WR’ cipher identify him as one of 25 Adjutants-General. Having failed to bring about and win a decisive battle on the Western Front, Moltke was dismissed in Sept 1914, dying of a stroke in June 1916. (Friedrich Herrmann Memorial Collection)
Most Army units traced their lineage back to the Prussian Army as reconstituted on 7 September 1808. The German Army jealously preserved its traditions with complex uniform distinctions and regimental titles, many of which incorporated the name of a German or foreign aristocrat serving as the colonel-in-chief.
There were infantry, cavalry, artillery, engineers, communications, medical and veterinary corps and miscellaneous units. Most branches had Standing Army, Reserve, Landwehr, Landsturm and Ersatz (depot) units. The Prussian Guards formed the Army’s élite troops, and most branches were represented in the four Guards Divisions formed before September 1915. It is important to note that the term Abteilung denoted a full sized field artillery battalion, but company-sized machine gun (MG), mortar, signals and air corps battalions.
Line Infantry (Infanterie) remained the decisive branch on the battlefield, with the Light Infantry (Jäger), Rifle (Schützen) and Machine Gun (Maschinengewehr – MG) battalions functioning as élite infantry. The mounted Cavalry (Kavallerie) was largely forced to redeploy as infantry. Prussian Cuirassiers (Kürassiere), including Lifeguards (Gardes du Corps) and Schwere Reiter, constituted the heavy cavalry, intended for offensive operations, while Dragoons (Dragoner) fought as mounted infantry – travelling on horseback but fighting on foot. The Light Cavalry comprised Lancers (Ulanen) for reconnaissance, infantry protection and deep penetration skirmishing, and Light Horse (Jäger zu Pferde or Chevaulegers) for skirmishing and mounted liaison duties.
Artillery comprised divisional Field Artillery (Feldartillere), Heavy (called ‘Foot Artillery’ – Fußartillerie) manning heavy siege-guns, and Mountain Artillery (Gebirgsartillerie). The Engineers (Pioniere) developed into a key offensive arm, providing Heavy (schwere Minenwerfer), Medium (Minenwerfer), Light (leichte Minenwerfer) and Mountain (Gebirgsminen-werfer) Mortar Companies for trench warfare.
Communications Troops (Verkehrstruppen) comprised Railway Troops (Eisenbahntruppen), operating military rail transport; Signals (Telegrafenor Fernsprechtruppen); Air Corps (Fliegertruppe) with company-sized airship units (Luftschiff-Trupps) and static balloon (Feldluftschiffer) and Flying (Feldflieger) battalions; Motor Transport (Kraft-fahrtruppen); and Supply Corps (Train) with company-sized corps Supply (Proviant) and horse transport (Fuhrpark) columns. The Medical Corps deployed unit medical officers (Sanitätsoffiziere), medical (Sanitäts) companies and field hospitals (Feldlazarette); and the Veterinary Corps provided unit veterinary officers (Veterinäroffiziere), and ran horse hospitals (Pferde-Lazarette).
Miscellaneous units included Labour (Arbeiter, later Armierungs) Battalions, formed to dig earthworks for the forts. Military Police (Feldgendarmerie) supervised troops in rear areas and the civilian population in occupied territories.
On 29 June 1912 the German Army was organised into 25 corps recruiting from 22 locally-recruited Corps Districts (1-14, 17-21; 1-3 Bavarian), with the Guards Corps recruiting from Prussia and Alsace-Lorraine, and the 15th (Alsace) and 16th (Western Lorraine) Districts recruiting nationally. There were 19 Prussian corps: Guards, 1-9, 14-18, 20-21; three Bavarian – 1-3 Bavarian; two Saxon – 12, 19; and one Württemberg – 13. Each corps comprised two infantry divisions, usually numbered sequentially, totalling 50 divisions (1st-2nd Guards, 1st-42nd, 1st-6th Bavarian), with the Guards Corps containing the Guards Cavalry Division. The corps were grouped into eight Army Districts (1.-8. Armee Inspektionen).
Minor states contributed units to the Prussian Army. Baden provided most of 14th Corps with 10 infantry regiments (109-114, 142, 169, 170); 2 dragoon regts (21-22); 5 field artillery regts (14, 30, 50, 66, 76), 14th Heavy Artillery Regt, Engineer Bn and Supply Battalion. Hesse deployed the 25th Inf Div with 5 infantry regts (115-118, 168); 2 dragoon regts (23-24); 2 field artillery regts (25, 61) and 18th Supply Battalion. Mecklenburg-Schwerin had 2 infantry bns (I/ & III/89) and a regt (90); 2 dragoon regts (17-18), and 60th Field Artillery Regiment. Mecklenburg-Strelitz had II/89 Inf Bn, 14th Light Inf Bn and 3/24 Field Artillery Battery. Oldenburg provided 91st Inf Regt, 19th Dragoon Regt and two field artillery batteries (2/62, 3/62). Brunswick provided 92nd Inf Regt, 17th Hussar Regt and 2/46 Field Artillery Battery. Five minor states each provided an infantry regiment: Hamburg (76), Anhalt (93), Saxe-Weimar (94), Saxe-Coburg-Gotha & Saxe-Meiningen (95). Three more provided two infantry battalions: Bremen (I/ & II/75), Lübeck (I/ & II/162) and Saxe-Altenburg (I/ & II/153). Five provided one infantry battalion each: Lippe (III/55), Schwarzburg-Sondershausen (I/71), Waldeck (III/83), Reuß (II/96) and Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt (III/96); and Schaumburg-Lippe, the 7th Light Infantry Battalion.
The German Empire comprised five significant minorities, all liable for military service. Thus there were Lithuanians in 1st Corps District; Poles in 5th–8th; Danes in 9th; Serbs in 12th; and Alsace-Lorraine French in 14th-16th and 21st. Jews served throughout the Army and could become general officers.
On 2 August 1914 the 25 peacetime corps were expanded to wartime strength, a 3rd Guards Division added, and existing line cavalry regiments grouped into 10 cavalry divisions (1-9, plus Bavarian). During August recruits, reservists and volunteers massing at the corps depots were organised into 14 Reserve Corps (Guards, 1, 3-10, 12, 14, 18, 1 Bavarian), with 28 Reserve Divisions (1, 2 Guards; 1, 5-7, 9-19, 21-26, 28, 30, 36; 1, 5 Bavarian) and 3 independent Reserve Divisions (3, 33, 35). There was also the Landwehr Corps with two divisions (3, 4) and two independent Landwehr divisions (1, 2); and 6 Ersatz (Depot) Divisions (Guards, 4, 8, 10, 19, 1 Bavarian). The 11 cavalry divisions were organised into four ‘corps’ (without a Corps HQ or HQ troops) each designated a ‘Cavalry Command’ (1-4 Höherer Kavallerie-Kommandeur – HKK).
Within a year 15 more corps were formed: in mid-August 1914 the Depot Corps (Ersatzkorps) with two Ersatz divisions (Guards, 4); in September, Eberhardt (later 15th Reserve) with 30th and 39th (Bavarian) Divisions; in October, six reserve corps (22-27), with 12 ‘1st Wave’ (1.Rate) reserve divisions (43-54); in November 1914, the Zastrow Corps (later 17th Reserve); in January 1915, five reserve corps (38-41, 2 Bavarian) with ten ‘2nd Wave’ reserve divisions (75-82; 8 Bavarian, also 6 ‘1st Wave’ Bavarian); and in August 1915, Gruppe Mitau (later 60th Special Corps – Korps zur besonderen Verwendung). Meanwhile four corps were redeployed (2, 20, Guards Reserve, Ersatzkorps). Thirty independent divisions were also formed March-April 1915: 20 Infantry (4 Guards, 50, 52, 54, 56, 58, 101, 103, 105, 107-109, 111, 113, 115, 117, 119, 121, 123; 10, 11 Bavarian); and ten Landwehr (7-10, 12-15; 1, 6 Bavarian). A further ten temporary behelfsmäßig divisions were formed August–November 1914 from eastern German garrisons, and in 1915 redesignated as divisions: 83, 84, 86-89 Inf; 5, 11, 18 Landwehr. Finally, the élite Alpenkorps (Alpine Corps) mountain division was formed in May 1915 for the Italian Front, followed by the last temporary division (Basedow) in July. Thus by September 1915, the Army totalled 51 corps and 161 infantry divisions.
Erich von Falkenhayn (1861–1922), Chief of the General Staff from Sept 1914 to Aug 1916, photographed as an infantry colonel in 1907. He wears the M1903 officers’ Prussian-blue double-breasted frock coat with a red collar and gold-plated buttons.
Thirty-four strategically important or vulnerable German towns were designated ‘fortresses’ (Festungen) and ringed with concrete forts and defensive lines. There were five vulnerable fortresses on the Western Front in Alsace-Lorraine: Bitsch (Bitche), Diedenhofen (Thionville), Metz, Neu-Breissach (Neuf-Brisach), and Straßburg (Strasbourg). Eleven vulnerable fortresses on the Eastern Front are now mostly in Poland: Boyen (Bojanowo), Danzig (Gdansk), Glatz (Klodzko), Glogau (Glogow), Graudenz (Grudziadz), Königsberg (Kaliningrad, Russia), Memel (Klaipeda, Lithuania), Neiße (Nysa), Pillau (Bielawa), Posen (Poznan) and Thorn (Torun). The remaining 18 fortresses, safe in the German interior, saw their garrisons transferred to the front and replaced by Landsturm.
A young NCO, probably an infantry Vizefeldwebel, marches happily to war, Aug 1914. He wears the M1907 infantry enlisted men’s field uniform with M1908 greatcoat, and officer-style high leather gaiters. He has red regimental numbers on the shoulder straps, red greatcoat collar patches with NCO braid, and an M1910 officer-style peaked field cap tucked into his belt. He carries senior NCOs’ field equipment, including a P08 pistol and binoculars, but also the M1909 rifle ammunition pouches. Traditionally troops leaving for the front wore flowers and branches in their helmets as good luck tokens from their loved ones.
On 2 August 1914 the bulk of the German Army was duly formed into eight field armies (1st-8th), but these did not correspond to the pre-war army districts. Seven (1st-7th) were deployed on the Western Front. The 8th and 9th Armies (established September 1914) formed on 1 November 1914 ‘Eastern Command’ (Oberost), reinforced in 1915 by five more armies: in January, Süd (formerly 20 Corps)and 10th; 11th in March, Bug in July, and 12th in August. There were also eight temporary armies: five designated as Armeeabteilung (AA) – Falkenhausen (Ersatzkorps), Lauenstein (39 Reserve Corps), Scholtz (20 Corps), Strantz (part of 5th Army) and Woyrsch (part of Landwehr Corps); and three as Armeegruppe (AG) – Beseler (part of 3 Reserve Corps), Gallwitz (Guards Reserve Corps) and Gaede (14 Reserve Corps – later an AA).
On 25 November 1914 three Army Groups were formed to control armies on the Western Front; from late January to 7 March 1915 these were reorganised into five ‘Groups’ (Gruppen). Later in 1915 four Army Groups were formed: on the Western Front, Deutscher Kronprinz (1 August) with 5th Army, AA Falkenhausen, Gaede and Strantz; on the Eastern Front, Mackensen/Kiew, later Linsingen (22 April) with Bug Army and 11th Army; Hindenburg (5 August), with 8th (Niemen), 10th & 12th Armies; and Prinz Leopold von Bayern, later Woyrsch (5 August), with 9th Army and AA Woyrsch.