THIRD EDITION
The Jossey-Bass Higher and Adult Education Series
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Caffarella, Rosemary S. (Rosemary Shelly), 1946-
Planning programs for adult learners : a practical guide / Rosemary S. Caffarella and Sandra Ratcliff Daffron. —Third edition.
pages cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-470-77037-5 (pbk.), ISBN 978-1-118-41824-6 (ebk), ISBN 978-1-118-41543-6 (ebk), ISBN 978-1-118-52531-9 (ebk)
1. Adult education—United States—Administration. 2. Adult education—United States—Planning. I. Daffron, Sandra Ratcliff. II. Title.
LC5225.A34C34 2013
374—dc23
2012045974
We are dedicating this book to our husbands, Ed Caffarella and John Daffron, and our children, Christy Zaidi, Sarah, Sally, and Casey Ratcliff and their families for their continued support and encouragement in the writing of this book, and the love, laughter, and happiness they bring to our lives.
Our very special thanks to Erin Smith as this book is much richer thanks to her tireless energy and the many hours she gave to us. Erin received her undergraduate degree at Cornell University in Human Development in 2011, and her master’s degree in Educational Psychology in May 2012 from the State University of New York at Buffalo, and she is employed by the Human Resources Research Organization (HumRRO). We appreciate her library skills, computer expertise in setting up the many exhibits and applications exercises, her continuous feedback throughout the editing on the content of the book as a newcomer to program planning, and the final copyediting of the book.
Figures, Exhibits, and Exercises
Figures
| Figure 2.1 | The Interactive Model of Program Planning |
| Figure 4.1 | Power and Influence Tactics Used with Co-Planners |
| Figure 9.1 | Successful Transfer of Learning Model |
| Figure 12.1 | Donor Pyramid |
| Figure 15.1 | Interactive Model of Program Planning Figures: 1994 and 2002 |
| Figure 15.2 | The Interactive Model of Program Planning |
Exhibits
| Exhibit 2.1 | Options for Actions and Possible Consequences |
| Exhibit 4.1 | Sampling of Negotiated Tasks and Items |
| Exhibit 5.1 | Activities for Participants Before, During, and After Programs |
| Exhibit 6.1 | Techniques for Generating Ideas for Education and Training Programs |
| Exhibit 7.1 | Sample Program Goals and Educational Program Objectives |
| Exhibit 7.2 | Program Objectives Focused on Program Operations |
| Exhibit 7.3 | Examples of Unintended and Intended Measurable and Nonmeasurable Program Objectives |
| Exhibit 8.1 | Translating Program Goals and Objectives into Learning Objectives |
| Exhibit 8.2 | Helpful Hints for Instructors |
| Exhibit 9.1 | Description of Factors |
| Exhibit 9.2 | Framework for Transfer of Learning: People, Timing, and Strategies |
| Exhibit 10.1 | Kinds of Decisions Made Using Evaluation Data |
| Exhibit 10.2 | Problems in Systematic Evaluation |
| Exhibit 10.3 | Examples of Situations Where the Developmental Evaluation Approach Is Useful |
| Exhibit 10.4 | Techniques for Collecting Evaluation Data |
| Exhibit 10.5 | Types of Data Collected |
| Exhibit 11.1 | Descriptions of Program Formats |
| Exhibit 11.2 | Sample Program Schedules |
| Exhibit 11.3 | Guidelines and Questions for Selecting External Staff Members |
| Exhibit 11.4 | Ten Criteria to Consider When Selecting Instructional Staff Members |
| Exhibit 12.1 | Examples of the Six Most Often Used Budget Models |
| Exhibit 12.2 | Phases of Developing and Managing a Contingency Plan |
| Exhibit 12.3 | Cost Contingency Planning Strategies for Educational Programs |
| Exhibit 12.4 | Sample Income Sources |
| Exhibit 12.5 | Elements of the Case for Support |
| Exhibit 13.1 | Commonly Used Social Media Tools |
| Exhibit 14.1 | Conference Planning Time Line |
| Exhibit 14.2 | Examples of Problems and Solutions That Might Occur Before the Conference |
| Exhibit 14.3 | Examples of Problems and Solutions That Might Occur During the Conference |
| Exhibit 14.4 | Examples of Problems and Solutions That Might Occur After the Conference |
| Exhibit 15.1 | A Checklist for Planning Programs |
| Exhibit 15.2 | Examples of Future Trends in Globalization |
Exercises
| Exercise 1.1 | Understanding the Roles of Program Planners in Organizational Settings |
| Exercise 1.2 | Defining the Purpose of Education and Training Programs |
| Exercise 1.3 | Approaches to Program Planning |
| Exercise 2.1 | Examining Components of the Interactive Model to Use |
| Exercise 2.2 | Making Ethical Decisions in Program Planning |
| Exercise 3.1 | Becoming More Familiar with Foundational Knowledge |
| Exercise 3.2 | Learning About Cultural Differences |
| Exercise 3.3 | Power Dynamics in the Planning Process |
| Exercise 4.1 | Analyzing the Context for Planning |
| Exercise 4.2 | Reflecting on Your Beliefs, Actions, and Negotiation Skills in Power-Based Interactions |
| Exercise 4.3 | Negotiating in Situations That Are Grounded in Deeply Held Values That Differ Among Stakeholders |
| Exercise 5.1 | Ensuring Support for Education and Training Programs |
| Exercise 5.2 | Building Structural Support for Education and Training Programs |
| Exercise 5.3 | Obtaining and Maintaining People Support from the Wider Community |
| Exercise 5.4 | Strategies for Building and Sustaining Partnerships |
| Exercise 6.1 | Identifying Sources of Ideas and Needs for Education and Training Programs |
| Exercise 6.2 | Choosing Techniques for Generating Ideas and Needs for Education and Training Programs |
| Exercise 6.3 | Selecting and Developing Criteria and Choosing an Approach for Prioritizing Needs and Ideas for Training and Education Programs |
| Exercise 7.1 | Developing Program Goals |
| Exercise 7.2 | Constructing Program Objectives |
| Exercise 7.3 | Evaluating the Program Objectives |
| Exercise 7.4 | Revising the Program Objectives |
| Exercise 8.1 | Developing Learning Objectives |
| Exercise 8.2 | Selecting Instructional Techniques |
| Exercise 8.3 | Creating an Instructional Assessment Process |
| Exercise 8.4 | Preparing Instructional Plans |
| Exercise 9.1 | Identifying Elements That Enhance or Inhibit Transfer of Learning |
| Exercise 9.2 | Choosing Strategies and Techniques to Use in Transfer of Learning |
| Exercise 10.1 | Planning a Systematic Program Evaluation |
| Exercise 10.2 | Informal and Unplanned Evaluation Opportunities |
| Exercise 10.3 | Making Judgments About Programs |
| Exercise 11.1 | Determining the Program Format and Staff Members’ Roles |
| Exercise 11.2 | Scheduling the Program |
| Exercise 11.3 | Selecting Effective Instructional Staff Members |
| Exercise 12.1 | Preparing Program Budgets for Estimating Expenses and Income |
| Exercise 12.2 | Reducing Program Costs |
| Exercise 12.3 | Learning about Specific Strategies for Fundraising |
| Exercise 13.1 | Choosing Promotional Materials and Tools |
| Exercise 13.2 | Evaluating the Qualities of a Good Web Site |
| Exercise 14.1 | Selecting Program Facilities |
| Exercise 14.2 | Choosing Meeting Rooms |
| Exercise 14.3 | Overseeing the Program Arrangements |
| Exercise 14.4 | Handing Problems Before, During, and After Programs |
Figures, Exhibits, and Exercises Available Online
Figures
| Figure 1.A | Centrality of Responsibility for Education Programs and Training |
| Figure 2.A | Sample Framework for Ethical Decisions in Program Planning |
| Figure 9.A | Examples of Barriers and Enhancers to Transfer of Learning |
| Figure 13.A | The Four Ps of Marketing |
| Figure 14.A | Layouts for Setting Up Meeting Rooms |
Exhibits
| Exhibit 1.A | Examples of Education and Training Programs for Adults |
| Exhibit 1.B | Examples of Program Purposes |
| Exhibit 2.A | Examples of Program Situations and Components to Be Addressed |
| Exhibit 2.B | Ethical Dilemmas |
| Exhibit 3.A | Cultural Factors and Descriptions |
| Exhibit 3.B | Skills Related to Being Culturally Competent |
| Exhibit 4.A | Examples of Sources of Data About the Planning Content |
| Exhibit 4.B | How Power Influences the Program Planning Process |
| Exhibit 4.C | Examples of Laws of Power |
| Exhibit 4.D | Strategies Planners Can Use When Major Conflicts Arise |
| Exhibit 5.A | Activities for Supervisors to Support Education and Training Programs Before, During, and After Programs |
| Exhibit 5.B | Strategies Staff Can Use to Work with or “Around” Supervisory Personnel |
| Exhibit 5.C | Ways Planners Gain Support for Middle- and Senior-level Managers |
| Exhibit 5.D | Ways to Build Structural Organizational Support |
| Exhibit 5.E | Process to Build a Supportive Organizational Culture |
| Exhibit 5.F | Guidelines for Fostering Successful Advisory Committees |
| Exhibit 5.G | Sample Responsibilities of Legally Constituted Boards |
| Exhibit 5.H | Examples of Tasks Appropriate for Legally Constituted Boards and Advisory Committees |
| Exhibit 5.I | Board Matrix Worksheet |
| Exhibit 5.J | Useful Ideas for Preparing and Conducting Meetings |
| Exhibit 5.K | Critical Operating Principles for Building and Maintaining Partnerships |
| Exhibit 5.L | Strategies for Building and Sustaining Partnerships |
| Exhibit 6.A | Sources of Ideas for Education and Training Programs |
| Exhibit 6.B | Elements of a Formally Structured Needs Assessment |
| Exhibit 6.C | People Who Could Be Involved in Setting Priorities |
| Exhibit 6.D | Two Major Categories of Criteria with Examples and Descriptions |
| Exhibit 6.E | Sample Priority Rating Chart with Equally Weighted Criteria |
| Exhibit 6.F | Alternative Interventions to Education and Training Programs |
| Exhibit 8.A | Sample Learning Objectives |
| Exhibit 8.B | Examples of Action Words for Learning Outcomes |
| Exhibit 8.C | Guidelines for Organizing Content |
| Exhibit 8.D | Ten Major Factors to Consider When Choosing Instructional Techniques |
| Exhibit 8.E | Examples of Techniques by Learning Outcomes |
| Exhibit 8.F | Sample Instructional Resources by Category |
| Exhibit 8.G | Sample Questions to Guide Participant Assessment of Resources and Process |
| Exhibit 8.H | Example of a Survey for Assessing Transfer of Learning |
| Exhibit 8.I | Assessment Techniques by Learning Outcomes Category |
| Exhibit 8.J | Evaluation of a Workshop |
| Exhibit 8.K | Nine Indicators of Useful Assessment |
| Exhibit 8.L | Seminar for Program Planners |
| Exhibit 8.M | Workshop for Cancer Volunteers |
| Exhibit 9.A | Sample Techniques to Facilitate Learning Transfer |
| Exhibit 10.A | Elements of a Systematic Evaluation |
| Exhibit 10.B | Various Types of Program Evaluation |
| Exhibit 10.C | Sample Participant Questionnaire |
| Exhibit 10.D | Sample Participant Questionnaire for Transfer Activities |
| Exhibit 10.E | Examples of Judgments Made on Education and Training Programs Using Quantitative Evaluation Criteria |
| Exhibit 11.A | Sample Formats for Building Learning Communities |
| Exhibit 12.A | Descriptions of Key Budgetary Terms |
| Exhibit 12.B | Differences Among Budgeting Models |
| Exhibit 12.C | Worksheet for Estimating Program Expenses |
| Exhibit 12.D | Estimating Costs for Personnel and Travel for a Three-Day Conference |
| Exhibit 12.E | Examples of Other Costs When Planning Programs |
| Exhibit 12.F | Fundraising Strategy Planning Worksheet |
| Exhibit 13.A | Elements of a Marketing Plan |
| Exhibit 13.B | Questions for Target Audience Analysis |
| Exhibit 13.C | Examples of Factors Reviewed in a SWOT Analysis |
| Exhibit 13.D | Tactics for Achieving Competitive Advantage |
| Exhibit 13.E | Pointers for Packing Messages into Words |
| Exhibit 13.F | Examples of Images Often Used for Marketing |
| Exhibit 13.G | Examples of Promotional Materials and Ways to Use Them |
| Exhibit 13.H | Qualities of Good Web Sites |
| Exhibit 13.I | Sample Marketing Campaign Plans |
| Exhibit 14.A | Examples of Data That Can Assist with Choosing Dates and Locations |
| Exhibit 14.B | Checklist for Selecting Facilities |
| Exhibit 14.C | Paying Attention to Meeting Room Details |
| Exhibit 14.D | The Negotiation Process for a Rental Agreement for a Facility |
| Exhibit 14.E | Organization of Task Groups |
Exercises
| Exercise 13.A | Keeping a Record of a Marketing Campaign |
| Exercise 13.B | Conducting a Target Audience Analysis |
PLANNING EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS is a pervasive and critical activity in adult education. Being effective in this task is thus a core competency for adult educators regardless of the social and organizational context in which educational programs are offered. These contexts are incredibly diverse as adult educators serve in a variety of roles that include, but are not limited to, leaders and continuing educators in community colleges and higher education; human resource and organizational development specialists in business and government; labor and union educators; social movement educators; instructional developers for distance education; adult literacy educators; community educators and developers at the local, national, and international level; and educators in professional associations. For well over fifty years, adult education scholars have published books and articles to characterize the key elements of the program planning process in order to offer guidance to practitioners engaged in this core professional activity. Among this tremendous array of publications, the Third Edition of Program Planning for Adult Learners offers one of the most comprehensive and useful approaches for practitioners who plan educational programs for adults.
Although this book is being published as the third edition, it is the fourth book that Rosemary Caffarella has contributed to the program planning literature. I have been teaching the program planning course in graduate programs since 1980 and first assigned students to read Caffarella’s original text, Program Development and Evaluation Resource Book for Trainers (Wiley, 1988), in the late 1980s. I have used that book as well as the first edition of Program Planning for Adult Learners (1994) and the second edition (2002) with hundreds of students and practitioners in workshops throughout the world over the past twenty-five years. The Interactive Model of Program Planning that forms the backbone of the books has been greatly valued by adult educators in these courses and workshops. As Malcolm Knowles said in the Foreword to the 1994 edition, “Rosemary Caffarella, one of the most effective scholar-practitioners of our era, explores the existing program planning models (which are mostly based on a linear, step-by-step process), extracts the best features of each, and incorporates these features into an essentially new model. This new model transforms program planning from a fundamentally mechanistic operation of following the steps to a creative operation of designing adventures in learning.” Sandra Daffron is an outstanding scholar-practitioner who has extensive experience across many social and organizational contexts for adult education. Her scholarship and experience in areas as diverse as adult literacy, judicial education, and community development in global contexts significantly enrich the third edition.
Without a doubt, the special contribution of Program Planning for Adult Learners is how the Interactive Model continues to evolve and adapt to new theories and realities. The second and third editions, for example, incorporated the new work on the political and social analyses that Cervero and Wilson offered in our books through the planning table metaphor. This third edition has integrated the relevant literature from the past decade on globalization, culture, and technology, which have so influenced the world in which adult educators now practice. The book is filled with examples and scenarios that illustrate the precepts and advice from the Interactive Model. The checklists in each chapter summarize and remind practitioners what to focus on in their practice. Practitioners and students alike have found these scenarios and checklists to be effective features of the book. It is striking that the Interactive Model continues to grow and develop so that it is clearly relevant to the demands of practice. Thus, it should be useful for practitioners in many diverse planning contexts and should continue to serve as a required text in program planning courses in graduate programs in adult education and related fields.
Finally, we have to be clear about what a program planning model can contribute to strengthening the practice of adult education and related fields. Practitioners will tell you that models do not plan programs, people do. This statement is correct. Forester agrees, but reminds us, “Nevertheless, good theory is what we need when we get stuck. Theories can help alert us to problems, point us toward strategies of response, remind us of what we care about, or prompt our practical insights into the particular cases we confront” (Forester, 1989, p. 12). With the Interactive Model of Program Planning, Caffarella and Daffron provide adult educators and practitioners in related fields a set of intellectual and practical tools to plan effective educational programs for adults.
Ronald M. Cervero
Professor and Associate Dean for Outreach and Engagement
College of Education, The University of Georgia
PLANNING AND EVALUATING education and training programs for adults is like trying to put together a puzzle. Sometimes we manage to get through the puzzle quickly and feel a real sense of satisfaction that we can do it with such ease. Other times we just cannot figure out how some pieces of the puzzle fit together or we think we are close to finishing but we discover that there seems to be a missing piece, a frustrating yet challenging obstacle. So it is with program planning. Some programs run smoothly from beginning to end. Other programs have minor but fixable glitches, such as presenters being sick or equipment not working. Still other programs seem to wander all over the place, with lots of revisions and changes along the way, and some even stall before they get off the ground. Often, when the norm is an evolving and changing planning process, many of the alternative avenues that must be explored cannot be anticipated. Rather, we find ourselves turning differing pieces various ways to make them fit or having to change the pieces previously matched by what had first appeared to be the same color or pattern, and move them to other parts of the puzzle to see where they might fit better. For example, imagine it is the night before a conference you are organizing and the keynote speaker is stuck at the airport. She had been there most of the day and has just learned that she cannot get a flight out until early tomorrow morning. Unfortunately her presentation was scheduled in the morning. It’s time to grab the pieces and reorganize! Gather the program committee, reschedule the keynote speaker to the afternoon, shift some of the afternoon presenters to the morning, track down the presenters to notify them of the changes, and rearrange some room assignments. The keynote speaker arrives the next morning, and a number of program participants comment on their program evaluations that they really appreciated how well the unavoidable dilemma was handled. Even when these seemingly unmanageable issues spring up, programs do have successful endings, and we feel a real sense of accomplishment and satisfaction with our work when this happens. We wrote this book to assist people who take on this challenge of putting together the many “puzzle pieces” that are a normal part of planning programs for adults, whether the puzzle is simple or complex.
Numerous models of planning education and training programs for adult learners exist, ranging from conceptual and data-based studies on program planning to how-to handbooks, guides, and workbooks. Some of these planning models are considered seminal works, such as R. W. Tyler’s Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction (1949), Cyril Houle’s The Design of Education (1972, 1996), Malcolm Knowles’s The Modern Practice of Adult Education (1970), and Ron Cervero and Arthur Wilson’s Planning Responsibly for Adult Education: A Guide to Negotiating Power and Interests (1994). Other authors have provided very useful, but often brief or incomplete descriptions of the planning process. And many of the models have limited application as they are targeted at planners who work in very specific contexts, such as corporate settings, health care organizations, and governmental agencies.
Planning Programs for Adult Learners is distinctive for two major reasons. First, the Interactive Model of Program Planning presented in this third edition both captures and reconfigures classical and current descriptions of the program planning process. The result is a comprehensive eleven-component model, the Interactive Model of Program Planning, which draws on the best conceptual, empirical, and practice knowledge from across a variety of contexts—the corporate sector, continuing education for the professions, public schools, colleges and universities, health care, international development projects, social agencies, nonprofit organizations, governmental agencies, community action programs, religious institutions, and other less formal programs. In addition, the Interactive Model takes into account three key factors that make this model a viable resource for educational planners: the practicality and usefulness as a technical description of the planning process, the emphasis on people being the heart of the process, and the recognition that we live in a globalized world where the diverse culture of the audiences attending education and training programs has become the norm.
Second, Planning Programs for Adult Learners provides a concrete framework for program planning and a how-to guide and resource book for practitioners. This eleven-component framework can be applied in many ways, as there is no one best way of planning education and training programs. Program planners are asked, for example, to select which components of the model to use and when and how to apply these components based on their professional judgment. Smart and effective planners make these decisions in collaboration with other key stakeholders. Planners also may start the process at varying points, focus on only one component at a time, or work on a number of components simultaneously, depending on their specific planning situation. In addition, they also may choose to give some tasks more emphasis than others and may need to revisit components or tasks more than once during the planning process. Therefore, program planning for adults, working within this framework, is an interactive and action-oriented process in which decisions and choices are made about learning opportunities for adults; thus, flexibility is a fundamental norm of the planning process.
The how-to part of Planning Programs for Adult Learners serves as a practical guide and provides hands-on resources for staff members who are constantly in the middle of planning one program or another. The many exhibits, figures, and lists presented throughout the text give readers substantial information in a concise and easily usable format. Many of these materials could be used by planning staff to assist them in completing the different tasks required for successful programs. In addition, there are application exercises at the end of each chapter to help readers apply the material addressed within the chapter to their own program planning situations.
This book is intended for novice and experienced people who plan education and training programs for adults in a variety of settings. It is targeted primarily at people who either have or aspire to obtain full- or part-time positions as program planners. These people already have (or will have) major responsibilities related to planning and evaluating education and training programs as all or part of their jobs. Their work settings are diverse, with multiple responsibilities. In addition, there are two other audiences for whom Planning Programs for Adult Learners can be helpful. The first is paid staff members who plan education and training programs as only a small but important part of what they do, whether or not planning is a part of their official position descriptions. For example, many staff members who are not identified as program planners, such as managers, supervisors, and subject matter specialists, are expected to plan education and training opportunities for their staff members. The second audience is the legion of volunteers who develop programs for adult learners—from committee and board members of social service agencies to community action groups. The commonality among all the many audiences for this book is that they are all responsible in some way for planning and evaluating programs for adult learners, whether these learners are colleagues, other staff members, customers, external audiences, or the general community.
Planning Programs for Adult Learners is organized into two major parts, followed by a closing chapter that allows readers to revisit the Interactive Model of Program Planning and receive a brief glimpse of the future of program planning. The first three chapters of the book, which constitute the first part of the book, lay the groundwork for the rest of the volume by introducing what program planning is all about—in other words, the Interactive Model that provides the framework for the remainder of the book, and the basic knowledge bases on which the model is grounded. More specifically, Chapter One describes those who plan and sponsor education and training programs, how these programs are planned, the purposes of these programs, and the two major sources that were used in constructing the Interactive Model—the classic and current descriptions of program planning models and approaches; and the practical experiences of program planners. Chapter Two provides an overview of the components and tasks associated with the Interactive Model of Program Planning, the basic assumptions on which this model is grounded, how to determine which parts of the model to use where and when, who finds the model useful, and the importance of ethics in program planning. Chapter Three presents five areas of fundamental knowledge that are especially important in understanding how to design and carry through programs for adults—adult learning, cultural differences, building relationships, power and interests, and technology.
The second part makes the Interactive Model of Program Planning come alive—this framework becomes a working guide for practice. Each of the eleven components of the framework is explained, and practical tips and ideas related to concrete tasks within each of the components are given. The next eight chapters of the book focus on the components that program planners use in designing and evaluating the educational and training programs. Unless program planners pay careful attention to each of these components that are appropriate for the programs they are planning, the chance of meeting the goals and objectives of these programs are slim to none. The topics of these chapters are:
The next three chapters center on those components that stress the administrative tasks that are critical to any education and training program being planned. When these components are needed and viewed as secondary or do not receive the consideration they deserve, usually one of two outcomes emerge—programs will be cancelled before the day of the event or program participants will not be happy with the program. The topics of these chapters are:
The book closes, as noted earlier, with a chapter that allows readers to revisit the Interactive Model of Program Planning and receive a brief glimpse into what the future might hold for program planners. Highlighted is how the model has changed since its first introduction in 1994. A review of the current model and tasks that make this model a useful and viable resource for practitioners is then provided, followed by a snapshot of what the future might hold for program planners. The chapter concludes with a short personal reflection from the authors on the writing of the third edition of Planning Programs for Adult Learners.
This book is available both in print and e-book formats, with supplementary materials available online at www.josseybass.com/go/Caffarella using the password josseybasshighereducation. The supplementary content includes numerous exhibits, scenarios (or stories) of practice, figures, and application exercises related to all but Chapter Fifteen of the book. These supplementary materials are integral to the content of the book in that they give readers numerous opportunities to expand further their knowledge of the program planning process for adults. These materials may be used simultaneously, which the authors recommend that readers do, or can be accessed when readers want to delve more into specific content areas.
WE ARE PLEASED to present this third edition of Planning Programs for Adult Learners. The initial edition of this book, which was published in 1994, was inspired by practitioners, students, and colleagues who wanted a sound conceptual model—but one that was grounded in practice, while at the same time usable and practical. We recognize the progression of work in the field since the initial and second editions that has helped to shape and form the concepts presented in this book. In particular, we recognize the issue of globalization and crossing of borders that has made our world smaller and much richer. Although technology advances have provided tools to ease some of the program planning work, much remains the same in using adult education principles and assumptions to plan successful programs. Program planners still recognize the need to establish the right context and environment for learning but can use the results of recent research and apply them to transfer learning to practice.
We wish to thank our graduate students in the College of Education at Cornell University and Western Washington University, and other universities we have been affiliated with over the years, as well as the many practitioners we have worked with throughout our careers. They have inspired us and helped us to write the scenarios and exhibits by example and with conviction. Many insights into the realities of planning programs to bring about change, and the dedication to save lives as a result, were found in Malaysia with breast cancer survivors who tirelessly volunteered.
We appreciate the help and patience of our editor, David Brightman at Jossey-Bass, and the outside reviewers who provided feedback on the 2002 edition, and suggested useful changes for this edition. Fred DiAddezzio, Ed Webster, and Erin Smith gave great insights into the world of marketing programs and using technology. We also appreciate the friendship and encouragement of Sharan Merriam.