Contents
About the Author
Foreplay
Illustrations
Text Boxes
Digging Deeper
Your Sexuality
Tables
1 Theoretical Perspectives on Human Sexuality
Introduction
What Drives Us to Have Sex?
Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Sexuality
The Perspective of This Text
Key Terms
Discussion Questions: What is Your Perspective on Sex?
References
2 Sexology Research: History, Methods, and Ethics
Introduction
A Brief History of Sexology
Sexology as a Science
Sample Selection
Nonexperimental Research
Experimental Research
A Note on Statistics
Ethics in Sexology Research
Evaluating Sex Research
Key Terms
Discussion Questions: What is Your Perspective on Sex?
References
3 Human Sexual Anatomy
Introduction
Male Sexual Anatomy
Female Sexual Anatomy
Moving Forward
Key Terms
Discussion Questions: What is Your Perspective on Sex?
References
4 Human Sexual Response: Understanding Arousal and Orgasm
Introduction
Factors That Influence Sexual Arousal
The Sexual Response Cycle
Key Terms
Discussion Questions: What is Your Perspective on Sex?
References
5 Gender and Gender Identity
Introduction
Biological Influences on Gender Identity and Sexuality
Psychosocial Influences on Gender Identity and Sexuality
Variations in Gender Expression
Just How Different Are Men and Women?
Key Terms
Discussion Questions: What is Your Perspective on Sex?
References
6 Sexual Orientation
Introduction
Sexual Orientation: Definitions and Types
Measurement and Prevalence
Theories of Sexual Orientation
Sex Differences in the Expression of Sexual Orientation
Sexual Orientation Attitudes
Sexual Orientation Myths
Key Terms
Discussion Questions: What is Your Perspective on Sex?
References
7 The Laws of Attraction
Introduction
What Attracts Us To Other People?
Attraction Processes among Gay Men and Lesbians
Why Are Men and Women Attracted to Different Characteristics?
Key Terms
Discussion Questions: What is Your Perspective on Sex?
References
8 Intimate Relationships: Sex, Love, and Commitment
Introduction
Singlehood and Casual Relationships
Love and Committed Relationships
Why Do Some Relationships Succeed While Others Fail?
Key Terms
Discussion Questions: What is Your Perspective on Sex?
References
9 Sexual Behaviors
Introduction
Solitary Sexual Behaviors
Partnered Sexual Behaviors
Frequency and Benefits of Sex and Orgasm
Sexual Behavior in Psychological Perspective
Key Terms
Discussion Questions: What is Your Perspective on Sex?
References
10 Sex Education, Contraception, and Pregnancy
Introduction
Sex Education
Contraception
Pregnancy
Key Terms
Discussion Questions: What is Your Perspective on Sex?
References
11 Sexually Transmitted Infections and Safer-Sex Practices
Introduction
Sexually Transmitted Infections
Factors That Increase the Spread of STIs
The Psychological Impact of STIs
Preventing Infection
Key Terms
Discussion Questions: What is Your Perspective on Sex?
References
12 Sexual Dysfunction and Sex Therapy
Introduction
Causes of Sex Difficulties
Types of Sexual Dysfunction
Sex Therapy
Tips For Avoiding Sexual Difficulties
Key Terms
Discussion Questions: What is Your Perspective on Sex?
References
13 Variations in Sexual Behavior
Introduction
What are Paraphilias?
Types of Paraphilias
Treatment of Paraphilic Disorders
Key Terms
Discussion Questions: What is Your Perspective on Sex?
References
14 Sex Laws, Sexual Victimization, and the Sexual Marketplace
Introduction
A Brief History of Sex Laws
Sexual Coercion and Violence
The Sexual Marketplace
Key Terms
Discussion Questions: What is Your Perspective on Sex?
References
Epilogue
Glossary
Index
This edition first published 2014
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Lehmiller, Justin J.
The psychology of human sexuality / Justin J. Lehmiller.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-118-35133-8 (cloth) – ISBN 978-1-118-35121-5 (pbk.) 1. Sex (Psychology) 2. Sex (Biology) I. Title.
BF692.L435 2014
155.3–dc23
2013033147
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Cover image: © James Cotier / Getty Images
Cover design by Simon Levy Design Associates
Justin J. Lehmiller (PhD, Purdue University) is a College Fellow in the Department of Psychology at Harvard University. He has been teaching college-level human sexuality courses for more than 8 years and is an accomplished educator. As a graduate student at Purdue, he received an award for outstanding teaching and, since serving on the faculty at Harvard, was awarded a Certificate of Teaching Excellence.
Dr. Lehmiller is also a prolific scholar, having published more than 25 pieces of scientific writing to date, including articles in some of the leading journals on sex and relationships, such as the Journal of Sex Research and the Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. He conducts research on topics including secret relationships, prejudice and stigma, sexual orientation, safer-sex practices, and friends with benefits. Dr. Lehmiller’s credentials have made him an internationally recognized expert on sexuality. He is frequently interviewed by and has his research highlighted in news and media outlets, including CNN.com, The Chicago Tribune, The Huffington Post, Men’s Health, and The Sunday Times. He writes a popular blog, The Psychology of Human Sexuality, that is updated several times per week and presents the latest research on sex and relationships in a way that is both educational and entertaining. Learn more about Dr. Lehmiller and follow his blog at www.lehmiller.com .
Sex. Almost everyone does it, but almost no one wants to talk about. It is quite the paradox when you consider how vital sex is to human life. Not only is it the act that propels our species forward, but it is also a way to bond with a romantic partner, a way to relieve the stress of daily life, not to mention an enjoyable way to pass the time. Of course, sex is not fun and games all of the time. For some people, sex can be a constant source of anxiety and insecurity, an awkward and embarrassing topic of discussion, not to mention a potential pathway to disease and death. Sex thus has both a light side and a dark side, and each deserves to be acknowledged.
The goal of this book is to give you a better understanding of the ins and outs of sex from a psychological perspective. There are many excellent books out there already that tackle this topic from a largely biological standpoint, and you could certainly learn a lot from reading those texts. However, most of those books give short shrift to the roles that psychology and the social and cultural context play in shaping human sexual behavior. I have used many of these books in previous courses I have taught and have found that students who were majoring in psychology or who took the course because it was advertised as Psychology of Human Sexuality were largely unsatisfied. In fact, the first few times I taught this class, my end-of-semester evaluations looked pretty similar: students commented on how much they loved and enjoyed the course, but wanted to know, “Where’s the psychology?” Because I was unable to find a book that truly met the needs and desires of my students, I decided to write this one.
Of course, this book will not focus on psychology to the total exclusion of other factors, because that would ultimately do a disservice to readers by providing an utterly imbalanced perspective. I have therefore sought to put psychology front and center throughout, but also to give due consideration to biological, evolutionary, and sociocultural influences on sexuality where relevant. As some of you may recognize, this book mirrors the biopsychosocial perspective adopted in most health psychology textbooks.
When it comes to teaching a sexuality course, my philosphy is to be sex-positive. I have heard people define sex-positive in many different ways, but my personal definition involves: (1) adopting comprehensive and inclusive definitions of gender and sexual orientation, (2) rejecting narrow definitions about what constitutes sex (e.g., the view that only vaginal intercourse “counts”), (3) giving due consideration to the potential positive and negative consequences of being sexually active, (4) providing students with the information and tools they need to optimize their sexual health and to make healthy decisions, (5) promoting healthy and respectful sexual and romantic relationships, (6) recognizing that monogamy and marriage are not universal relationship goals and ideals, (7) understanding that not everyone is a sexual being and that a lack of sexual desire is not inherently dysfunctional, and (8) respecting people who have different views about sex. I kept this philosophy in mind when writing this book with the goal of making it as inclusive and respectful as possible for a diverse audience.
After reading this book, my hope is that you will have a better understanding of and appreciation for the amazing complexity of human sexuality, as well as the incredible variation that exists in sexual perspectives and behaviors. The ultimate goal is to enhance your psychological training and for you to be able to think and communicate about sex at a much deeper level in your everyday life, in both casual conversations and interactions with sexual and/or romantic partners.
Now let’s talk about sex.
|
1.1 |
The ancient Greeks and Romans believed in gods and goddesses devoted to love and sex, such as Aphrodite. |
|
1.2 |
Flamingos are just one of many animal species in which same-sex sexual behavior has been observed. |
|
1.3 |
Sigmund Freud. |
|
1.4 |
Pairing dirty talk or other stimuli with sexual activity may lead those stimuli to become sexually arousing in and of themselves. |
|
1.5 |
There is no reliable evidence that therapies designed to change patients’ sexual orientation actually work. |
|
1.6 |
Both adolescents and adults imitate the activities they see depicted in sexually explicit material. |
|
1.7 |
Sensation seekers tend to engage in activities that bring more thrills and excitement. |
|
1.8 |
Evolutionary theory posits that heterosexual men are attracted to women whose bodies are shaped like an hourglass and who have long, silky hair because these are signs of good health and fertility. |
|
1.9 |
The biopsychosocial model as applied to sexual health. |
|
2.1 |
Alfred Kinsey. |
|
2.2 |
A mercury-in-rubber penile strain gauge. |
|
2.3 |
An early generation vaginal photoplethysmograph. |
|
2.4 |
fMRI. |
|
2.5 |
Although there may be a correlation between the stork population and the rate of human births, it would be erroneous to conclude that storks are responsible for delivering babies. Correlations do not imply cause-and-effect. |
|
2.6 |
Laud Humphries studied men who have sex with men in public restrooms. Was it ethically appropriate for Humphries to deceive the men about his true identity and intentions? |
|
2.7 |
At the beginning of any study on sex and sexuality, participants must be informed of their rights, the nature of the research, and the potential risks involved. |
|
3.1 |
In recent history, the penis has largely been seen as vulgar and makes infrequent appearances even in artistic depictions of the male body. |
|
3.2, 3.3, 3.4 |
The appearance of the penis and scrotum varies substantially across persons. |
|
3.5 |
The male reproductive system. |
|
3.6 |
Penis size is one of men’s biggest body concerns. Some men pursue dangerous and untested treatments with the hope of enhancing the size of their genitals. |
|
3.7 |
The appearance of the vulva can vary widely. |
|
3.8 |
Some of the structures of the vulva, including the labia, clitoral hood, and introitus. |
|
3.9 |
The female reproductive system. |
|
3.10 |
Anatomy of the female breast. |
|
3.11 |
Female dolls often have extreme and unrealistic bodily proportions, some of which would be nearly impossible to obtain in real life. |
|
3.12 |
Research has found that breast self-exams are not as effective as doctors once believed. Thus, they are not a substitute for consulting with a physician. |
|
4.1 |
The structures of the limbic system. |
|
4.2 |
Physical touch is perhaps the strongest sexual sense. |
|
4.3 |
Men have long been thought to be more visually stimulated than women, but recent research suggests that this may not be the case. |
|
4.4 |
Other people’s scents can turn us off or on; however, we may not always consciously recognize when this is happening. |
|
4.5 |
Being on the pill can potentially impact the amount of money a woman can make from exotic dancing. |
|
4.6 |
Why do female humans and animals vocalize more during sexual activity than their male counterparts? |
|
4.7 |
Testosterone replacement is sometimes used as a treatment for low libido in both men and women. |
|
4.8 |
Oxytocin (often referred to as the “cuddle drug”) facilitates sexual and romantic bonding, but it may also play a role in generating sexual arousal. |
|
4.9 |
Oysters are just one of many foods that have been thought to be an aphrodisiac. |
|
5.1 |
Chaz Bono is a female-to-male transsexual. |
|
5.2 |
Prenatal hormone exposure is theorized to alter brain structures that contribute to both our gender identity and sexual orientation. |
|
5.3 |
World running champion Caster Semenya |
|
5.4 |
Can you guess the sex of this child? |
|
5.5 |
Teachers’ expectations for their students’ performance can influence academic achievement and later career interest in gender-stereotypic ways. |
|
5.6 |
The physical environments that surround us as children cue us in as to what our interests and activities “should” be. |
|
5.7 |
The most popular and iconic female characters in television and film, such as Snow White, tend to perpetuate stereotypical notions of how women are “supposed” to be. |
|
5.8 |
There are a lot of misconceptions about transvestites and transsexuals. This stems at least in part from inconsistent and misleading media portrayals. |
|
5.9 |
Drag queens are men who dress up as women for show. |
|
5.10 |
Are men inherently more aggressive than women, or does society just promote and accept male aggression more than female aggression? |
|
6.1 |
Kinsey’s famous sexual orientation rating scale places sexuality on a continuum, which allows for varying degrees of heterosexuality and homosexuality (Kinsey et al., 1948). |
|
6.2 |
The ratio of the second to fourth digit on the hand has been shown to predict sexual orientation in numerous studies. |
|
6.3 |
The Exotic Becomes Erotic theory incorporates biological and environmental influences on sexual orientation (Bem, 1996). |
|
6.4 |
Childhood gender nonconformity is one of the strongest predictors of adult homosexuality. |
|
6.5 |
Research has found that women demonstrate signs of sexual arousal in response to a wider range of pornography than men. |
|
6.6 |
Can our eyes reveal our sexual orientation? Research indicates that our pupils dilate in response to imagery that we find sexually arousing. |
|
6.7 |
Overt displays of homophobia are common in many parts of the world. |
|
6.8 |
Several prominent politicians, including former United States Senator Larry Craig, have been embroiled in gay sex scandals despite voting in favor of legislation restricting gay rights. |
|
6.9 |
Despite a continued high prevalence of sexual prejudice, gay, lesbian, and bisexual persons have more ability today to live openly and freely than ever before. |
|
6.10 |
Sexual orientation does not affect one’s ability to develop and maintain a long-term, loving relationship |
|
7.1 |
Psychologists have found that we form impressions of other people’s attractiveness and personality in a matter of seconds. |
|
7.2 |
Inducing positive affect is one of the keys to generating attraction. |
|
7.3 |
Internet dating companies often attempt to match people based solely on measures of similarity. |
|
7.4 |
In the Dutton and Aron (1976) study, men who walked across a high and shaky suspension bridge misattributed their arousal to the attractive research assistant instead of the nature of the situation. |
|
7.5 |
Viewing pornography or other popular media featuring highly attractive people can produce a contrast effect in which the attractiveness of the average person is distorted. |
|
7.6 |
Heterosexual men tend to rate women with long hair and a low waist-to-hip ratio as optimally attractive. |
|
7.7 |
Schmitt and colleagues’ (2003) research demonstrated a consistent sex difference in the number of sexual partners desired across many different cultures. |
|
7.8, 7.9 |
When men and women imagine offers of casual sex from celebrities like Zac Efron and Mila Kunis, there is no sex difference in likelihood of accepting the offer. |
|
7.10 |
The traditional sex difference in selectivity disappears when women approached men instead of the reverse. |
|
8.1 |
Single people are typically viewed and treated quite negatively in modern society. |
|
8.2 |
Friends with benefits frequently try to maintain an intimate and sexual relationship without developing romantic feelings. |
|
8.3 |
Passionate love is characterized by high levels of sexual desire and activity. |
|
8.4 |
Companionate love reflects a deep emotional connection that tends to be enduring. |
|
8.5 |
Robert Sternberg (1988) theorizes that the “triangle” of love is composed of passion, intimacy, and commitment. |
|
8.6 |
Making comparisons to couples that appear to be worse off (e.g., couples who fight all of the time) can make you feel better about your own relationship. |
|
8.7 |
The degree to which same-sex relationships are socially accepted varies substantially across cultures. |
|
8.8 |
An infinity symbol encased within a heart is often used to symbolize polyamory, or the idea that it is possible to love multiple persons simultaneously. |
|
8.9 |
In collectivistic cultures such as India, the practice of arranged marriage is common: the needs of the family and community are given greater weight than the needs of the individual. |
|
8.10 |
Communicating about sex appears to enhance sexual satisfaction. |
|
8.11 |
For couples in good relationships, having sex can relieve feelings of stress. |
|
8.12 |
Couples that violate societal or cultural expectations are subject to stigmatization, which may end up hurting the health of the couple members and their relationship. |
|
8.13 |
Infidelity is one of the biggest causes of relationship turmoil, breakup, and divorce. |
|
9.1 |
Sexual fantasies are very common in both men and women and serve a number of different purposes. |
|
9.2, 9.3 |
The content of men’s and women’s sexual fantasies differs, and often in a way that is consistent with gender role stereotypes. |
|
9.4 |
Sizes, and shapes, and colors, oh my! |
|
9.5 |
John Harvey Kellogg. |
|
9.6 |
For some individuals, kissing is one of the most pleasurable sexual activities there is. |
|
9.7 |
Touch can be a sensual experience even if it is not focused on the genitals |
|
9.8 |
Despite the widespread stereotype of “lesbian bed death,” many female same-sex couples lead very active and satisfying sex lives. |
|
9.9 |
Contrary to popular belief, kissing on the mouth is the most frequently reported sexual behavior among men who have sex with men. |
|
9.10 |
Frequent sex increases the growth rate of neurons in rats. Are creatures that have more frequent sex smarter? |
|
9.11 |
When our self-control resources are low, we may become more susceptible to cheating on a romantic partner. |
|
10.1 |
Sex education courses often contain insufficient and, in some cases, inaccurate information about sex and sexuality. |
|
10.2 |
Talking to kids about sex can be an awkward and embarrassing experience for some parents, but it is important to not let that stop the conversation. |
|
10.3 |
Fertility awareness methods utilize a variety of techniques to advise women of their fertile periods, during which time they will either abstain from sex or use barriers. |
|
10.4 |
Female condoms are less well-known and utilized than male condoms; however, both are desirable in that they provide at least some protection from STIs. |
|
10.5 |
Combined hormonal methods of contraception come in a variety of forms and dosages to meet women’s needs, such as the contraceptive patch. |
|
10.6 |
An IUD sits inside the uterus like this and can remain in place and effective for up to five years. |
|
10.7 |
This chart depicts contraceptive use patterns among US women ages 15–44. About 62 % of women of childbearing age actively use some form of contraception. |
|
10.8 |
Heterosexual women report greater attraction to masculine men like Channing Tatum when they are ovulating compared to other stages of the menstrual cycle. |
|
10.9 |
Sterilization involves severing the fallopian tubes (female) or vas deferens (male) in order to eliminate the possibility of conception. |
|
10.10 |
Trying to have a child and the transition to parenthood are stressful events for people of all sexes and sexualities – not just for heterosexual couples. |
|
11.1 |
Historically, the US government sought to alert servicemen about the dangers of STIs during times of war. |
|
11.2 |
Many people fail to realize that “cold sores” and “fever blisters” are caused by the herpes virus and that they are highly contagious through kissing and oral sex. |
|
11.3 |
Out of all world regions, Africa is disproportionately affected by the HIV/AIDS epidemic. |
|
11.4 |
One of the most persistent myths about STIs is that condoms provide an absolute safety guarantee. |
|
11.5 |
Anti-retroviral drug therapy significantly reduces the risk of HIV transmission during sexual activity and childbirth, and may potentially serve as a preventive agent for HIV-negative individuals who are at high risk of contracting the virus. |
|
11.6 |
As people become more committed to one another, safe-sex practices tend to drop off; however, that can create risk if one of the partners ends up cheating. |
|
11.7 |
Both doctors and patients express some reluctance to talking about sex during medical visits, which creates many missed opportunities for STI detection and diagnosis. |
|
11.8 |
Several websites now offer persons with a positive infection status the chance to meet other partners of the same status. |
|
11.9 |
If you do not have access to a dental dam, remember that you can create one from an everyday latex condom. |
|
12.1 |
Both prescription and non-prescription drugs and medications can contribute to sexual problems. |
|
12.2 |
Spectatoring and other distractions during sex can make it difficult to maintain arousal and reach orgasm. |
|
12.3 |
Golfer Tiger Woods is just one of many male celebrities who have sought treatment for “sexual addiction” in recent years after it was revealed that he was having an affair. |
|
12.4 |
Sensate focus exercises focus on promoting relaxation, communication, and intimacy. These exercises alone are often enough to resolve sexual difficulties. |
|
12.5 |
In the 2012 film The Sessions, Helen Hunt portrayed a sex surrogate who helped a disabled man discover his sexual potential. |
|
12.6 |
One option for treating erectile dysfunction is a penis pump, which draws blood into the penis through vacuum pressure. |
|
12.7 |
Upon its release in the late 1990s, Viagra quickly became the fastest-selling prescription drug of all time and continues to be a popular ED treatment to this day. |
|
12.8 |
One type of penile implant involves placing inflatable cylinders inside the cavernous bodies, which are attached to a fluid-filled reservoir in the pelvic cavity and a pumping mechanism placed inside the scrotum. |
|
12.9 |
Botox has a number of unexpected but potentially useful applications including an ability to prevent facial wrinkles, stop excess sweating, and treat vaginismus. |
|
13.1 |
Feet and toes are among the most common fetish objects. |
|
13.2 |
Rachman (1966) classically conditioned a mild boot fetish in a group of male participants, thereby providing a clear demonstration of the role of learning in the development of paraphilias. |
|
13.3 |
Transvestites dress as members of the other sex because they receive sexual arousal from it, not because they truly want to become members of the other sex. |
|
13.4 |
Contrary to popular belief, most people who practice BDSM prefer to give or receive only very mild forms of pain. |
|
13.5 |
As the name “peeping tom” implies, most voyeurs are men who become aroused by watching unsuspecting persons undress or have sex. |
|
13.6 |
What turns the exhibitionist on is the shocked reaction of an unsuspecting stranger. Exposing oneself to willing others is not of particular interest to the true exhibitionist. |
|
13.7 |
Frotteurists derive sexual arousal from rubbing up against unsuspecting strangers in crowded places. |
|
13.8 |
Necrophiles often work in settings where they can easily access corpses. Homicidal necrophiles may kill in order to have access to a dead body, but such behavior is quite rare. |
|
14.1 |
Many cultures and societies regulate the sexual behavior of consenting adults, which has resulted in some truly surprising sex laws. |
|
14.2 |
Rohypnol (“roofies”) tends to be the date rapist’s drug of choice due to its fast-acting and powerful sedative effects. |
|
14.3 |
The aftermath of sexual assault includes a variety of negative emotional responses, with the potential for post-traumatic stress. |
|
14.4 |
Although many people think of the nature of sexual harassment as being cut and dried, such as unwanted physical touching, the reality is that harassment may constitute a wide range of verbal and physical acts. |
|
14.5 |
When it comes to prostitution, women are most commonly the sellers and men the buyers; however, male prostitutes and female “johns” certainly exist. |
|
14.6 |
In the state of Nevada, brothels are legal in a couple of counties. |
|
14.7 |
Like pornography, erotica may depict explicit sexual activity. The difference is that erotica generally evokes themes of mutual consent, equality, and emotionality. |
|
14.8 |
Despite the widespread belief that porn stars represent “damaged goods,” research suggests that porn actresses feel just as positively about themselves as other women. |
|
14.9 |
Not only do more men report having utilized porn than women, but men also tend to use it on a much more frequent basis. |
|
14.10 |
Frequent pornography viewing may result in distorted views about what is normal when it comes to sex and the appearance of the human body. |
The Digging Deeper boxes are designed to reveal the science behind some of the most provocative and controversial topics in the field of human sexuality.
|
1.1 |
Can You Change Someone’s Sexual Orientation through Operant Conditioning? |
|
2.1 |
Do Sex Surveys Pose Harm to Student Participants? |
|
3.1 |
Should Men be Circumcised? |
|
3.2 |
Female Genital Cutting: What is it, and What Should Be Done about it? |
|
3.3 |
Can Women Orgasm From Nipple Stimulation? |
|
4.1 |
Do Birth Control Pills Make Exotic Dancers Less Appealing To Men? |
|
5.1 |
Can Gender Really Be “Assigned” At Birth? |
|
5.2 |
Cross-Dressing and Gender-Bending: Separating Science Fact from Fiction |
|
6.1 |
Are Homophobic People Repressing Their Own Same-Sex Desires? |
|
6.2 |
Are Bisexual People Aroused By Both Men and Women? |
|
7.1 |
“Is It Hot In Here, Or Is It Just You?” Do Pick-up Lines Work? |
|
7.2 |
Are Women Really the Choosier Sex? |
|
8.1 |
Why is it Socially Stigmatized to be Single? |
|
8.2 |
Are There Different Types of “Friends With Benefits?” |
|
8.3 |
Does Having Sex Relieve Stress For Couples? |
|
9.1 |
How Do Men’s and Women’s Sexual Fantasies Differ? |
|
9.2 |
The History of Motorized Sex Toys |
|
9.3 |
Do Gay Men’s Sex Lives Match Up With the Stereotypes? |
|
10.1 |
When and How Should You Talk to Your Kids About Sex in the Age of Internet Porn? |
|
10.2 |
How Close Are We to Having a Male Version of “The Pill?” |
|
11.1 |
Do Sexually Transmitted Infections Affect Women’s Ability to Orgasm? |
|
11.2 |
Six Myths About Sexually Transmitted Infections Debunked |
|
12.1 |
Sex Surrogacy: The “Hands-On” Approach to Sex Therapy |
|
12.2 |
How Long Should Sex Last and How Can I Last Longer in Bed? |
|
13.1 |
Why Do People Have Fetishes? |
|
13.2 |
A Top 10 List of Unusual Sexual Behaviors |
|
14.1 |
A Top 10 List of Wacky Sex Laws |
|
14.2 |
What Do Men and Women Focus on When They Watch Porn? |
|
14.3 |
Five Misconceptions About Sex and the Human Body Spread By Porn |
The Your Sexuality boxes are designed to engage readers with the chapter material. Readers are asked to reflect upon their own experiences and relationships, as well as to articulate their own unique perspectives on unsettled issues in the field.
|
1.1 |
Are You Erotophilic or Erotophobic? |
|
2.1 |
Was the Tearoom Trade Study Ethically Acceptable? |
|
3.1 |
Does the Sexual Double Standard Still Exist? |
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4.1 |
Faking Orgasms: Who Benefits More From a False Finish? |
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5.1 |
Where Do Transgendered and Intersexed Individuals Fit in a Gender Binary World? |
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6.1 |
What Percentage of the Population is Gay? It Depends How You Ask the Question |
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7.1 |
What Characteristics are Important to You in a Potential Partner? |
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8.1 |
What is Your “Love Style?” |
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9.1 |
The Dark Side of Sexual Fantasy |
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10.1 |
What Should School-Based Sex Education Look Like? |
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11.1 |
Should STI Vaccinations Be Mandated For Adolescents? |
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12.1 |
Is Sexual “Addiction” Real? |
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13.1 |
Perspectives on Zoophilia |
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14.1 |
Should Prostitution Be Legal? |
|
1.1 |
Cross-cultural Variations in Human Sexual Behavior |
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1.2 |
Television Shows that have Pushed the Sexual Envelope |
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1.3 |
Summary of the Major Psychological Theories in the Study of Human Sexuality |
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1.4 |
The Big Five Personality Traits and their Association with Sexual Behavior |
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2.1 |
A Summary of Sexology Research Methods |
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2.2 |
Selected Findings from the NSSHB |
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4.1 |
Sexual Effects of Several Alleged Aphrodisiacs |
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4.2 |
Potential Variations in Female Sexual Response |
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4.3 |
Comparing Different Models of Sexual Response |
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5.1 |
Typical Sequence of Biological Sex Differentiation |
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5.2 |
Biological Sex Variations |
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5.3 |
Gendered Presentations of Men and Women in the Media |
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6.1 |
Comparing Sexual Identity and Same-sex Sexual Behavior across National US Sex Surveys |
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6.2 |
Countries with Laws that Prohibit Employment Discrimination on the Basis of Sexual Orientation |
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7.1 |
Examples of Best and Worst Pick-up Lines |
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7.2 |
Evidence of Assortative Mating: Percentage of Partners across Different Relationship Types Displaying Similarity in Age, Religious Background, and Education Level |
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7.3 |
Major Variables in Sexual Attraction |
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7.4 |
Percentage of Men and Women Accepting Requests for Offers of Casual Sex |
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8.1 |
Sternberg’s Eight Varieties of Love |
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8.2 |
Countries that Recognize Same-sex Marriage |
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8.3 |
Likelihood that a First Marriage will last up to 20 years by Race of Partners in the US |
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9.1 |
Male and Female Sexual Behaviors across the Lifespan |
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9.2 |
Frequency of Masturbation by Age and Gender Groups |
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9.3 |
Frequency of Sexual Activity in the Past Year among Adults Age 18–59 |
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10.1 |
Reasons Women Failed to Use Contraception Before an Unintended Pregnancy |
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10.2 |
Typical and Perfect Use Effectiveness Rates for Various Contraceptives |
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11.1 |
Incidence and Prevalence of Selected Curable STIs across World Regions |
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11.2 |
CDC Screening Recommendations for STIs |
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11.3 |
Guidelines for Proper Condom Use |
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12.1 |
Factors Associated with Risk of Sexual Dysfunction in the National Health and Social Life Survey |
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12.2 |
Prevalence of Various Forms of Sexual Dysfunction Across Different Life Stages |
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13.1 |
Types of Paraphilias |
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13.2 |
Prevalence of Selected Fetishes among Members of Online Fetish Communities |
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14.1 |
Number of Sexual Assaults in the US |
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14.2 |
Comparing Porn Actresses to a Matched Sample of Women who have Never Been in Porn |
© Piotr Marcinski/123RF.COM .
Chapter Outline
For centuries, societies around the world adopted the view that sex means just one thing: penis-in-vagina intercourse within the context of marriage for the purpose of procreation. Pursuing any other form of genital pleasure was not only viewed as sinful, but it could get you thrown in jail or, in some cases, put to death. In stark contrast to this view, the concept of sex in modern times has been significantly expanded, and sexual activity has become quite complex. For instance, “sex” now refers to a wide range of behaviors, including everything from mutual masturbation to oral, vaginal, and anal stimulation, not to mention things like “sexting” and phone sex. Sexual activity today is no longer legally or morally restricted to traditional heterosexual marriage either; sex occurs between unmarried romantic partners, “friends with benefits,” and people of varying sexual orientations. Furthermore, sexual acts can serve a wide range of purposes, with procreation being just one possibility. People now see sex as a form of recreation, a way to express love or get closer to a partner, a way to celebrate special occasions, and (for some) a way to make money. In fact, in a recent study in which people were asked why they have sex, participants reported 237 distinct reasons for “getting it on” (Meston & Buss, 2007)! This immense variation in sexual activities, relationships, and motivations means that understanding sex in today’s world is a complicated task. The goal of this chapter is to give you the theoretical foundation necessary for appreciating the complexities and intricacies of modern human sexuality from a psychologist’s perspective.
As a starting point, it is useful to acknowledge that every single sexual act is the result of several powerful forces acting upon one or more persons. These forces include our individual psychology, our genetic background and evolved history, as well as the current social and cultural context in which we live. Some of these influences favor sexual activity, whereas others oppose it. Whether sex occurs at any given moment depends upon which forces are strongest at the time.
Let us consider in more detail some of these different forces and the ways they can impact human sexual decision making and behavior. Following that, we will consider some of the dominant theoretical perspectives used by psychologists in understanding human sexuality, before ultimately presenting the model that we will use to organize the remaining chapters in this book.
The forces that interact to produce sexual behavior can be lumped into three broad categories: psychological variables, cultural and societal factors, and biological and evolutionary influences. We will consider each of these in turn, providing specific examples of some of the ways they can shape human sexuality.
An enormous number of psychological factors can affect sexual behavior, including our mood states, level of cognitive alertness, our attitudes toward sex and relationships, behavioral expectancies, as well as associations learned through reinforcement. Some of these factors are transitory, meaning they can change from moment to moment, whereas others are relatively stable characteristics we carry with us throughout our lives. Regardless of their stability, each of these psychological variables can promote or inhibit sexual behavior.
For instance, personality is a relatively stable individual characteristic that may affect both the nature and frequency of our sexual activities (e.g., Markey & Markey, 2007; Miller et al., 2004). To illustrate this idea, just imagine the types of sexual situations that a very extraverted thrill seeker might get into compared to someone who is very introverted and likes to play it safe. Throughout this book, we will discuss many personality characteristics from the Big Five to sensation seeking to erotophilia that can have a profound influence on our sex lives (all of these personality characteristics will be defined later in this chapter).
Learned associations are another relatively stable characteristic that can affect sexual behavior (e.g., Plaud & Martini, 1999). Each of us associates something different with sex, based upon our prior learning experiences. When someone believes that sexual behavior will be helpful in some way (e.g., because that person was previously rewarded with social acceptance for engaging in this activity), sex is more likely to occur. In contrast, when someone expects that sexual behavior might be harmful (e.g., if one’s perceived risk of contracting a sexually transmitted infection (STI) appears high or if one’s previous sexual experiences have been bad), sex is less likely to occur.
Likewise, if someone has a negative attitude toward sex or toward a given partner, the odds of sexual activity decrease; in contrast, positive attitudes are likely to increase sexual activity, even in cases where that person might not necessarily be “in the mood” (e.g., someone who is tired might acquiesce to a partner’s request for sex to make that partner happy, not because this individual is feeling particularly interested in sex).
Finally, mood states are important as well – and they provide an example of a psychological characteristic that varies from moment to moment in terms of the impact it has on sex. Another example along these lines would be level of cognitive distraction (Masters & Johnson, 1970). When someone is in a negative mood or is highly distracted, not only is that person likely less inclined to have sex, but the sex they do have will probably be less satisfying; positive mood states and low levels of distraction tend to generate an opposite pattern of effects.
It is important to note that all of the effects discussed above are bidirectional (i.e., attitudes and mood states shape sexual behavior, but sexual behavior also shapes our attitudes and mood states, thereby creating a feedback loop). Moreover, keep in mind that these are just a few of the many ways that psychology and sexuality can intersect. Later in this chapter, we will explore several important theories that provide evidence of other, additional psychological variables that can affect sexuality. These include classical and operant conditioning, observational learning, and social exchange, among others.
The cultural and societal context in which we live plays a large role in determining sexual behavior. Virtually all societies around the world regulate sexuality in one form or another (DeLamater, 1987), effectively establishing standards for what should be considered sexually “normal” and “deviant” among certain groups of people. However, there is huge variability in these standards. For instance, although most industrialized societies today have established a norm of sexual monogamy, there are other cultures that not only permit, but explicitly encourage a free exchange of sex partners, even within marriage (see Ryan & Jetha, 2010). Although it is true that some sexual views and practices are more widely shared than others across cultures, such as the promotion of marriage and the discouragement of incest (i.e., sexual activity among blood relatives; Gregersen, 1996), there do not appear to be many (if any) truly universal principles of sexuality. For a few provocative examples of how sexual practices vary cross-culturally, see Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Cross-cultural Variations in Human Sexual Behavior
| Sexual behavior with a member of the same sex is controversial in many parts of the world, but is punishable by death in Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan (ILGA, 2013). |
| Among certain tribes in New Guinea, adolescent boys ingest the semen of older men because it is believed to promote strength and virility (Herdt, 1982). |
| In parts of South Asia, a third gender, hijra, is observed. Hijra consist of biological men who have had their genitalia removed in ritual castration. They are believed to possess special powers (Nanda, 2001). |
| Although kissing is a normal sexual behavior in most Western societies, it is viewed as disgusting among the Thonga of South Africa (Gregersen, 1996). |
| In some Asian and African countries, the practice of arranged marriage is relatively common. In such marriages, parents are responsible for selecting their child’s future spouse (Malhotra, 1991). |
One of the major factors that propels these cultural variations in sexuality is religion. As some evidence of the powerful role that religion exerts on people’s views of sexuality, we will consider a few prominent historical examples. First, let us look back at the ancient Greeks and Romans, who shared a belief in multiple gods. Many of the most common myths and stories from these early times centered around the sexual exploits of those gods, which included everything from incest to sex with animals. These ancient peoples even had gods and goddesses devoted exclusively to sex, such as Aphrodite (Greek) and Venus (Roman). As a result, it is perhaps not surprising that the Greeks and Romans were a sexually active bunch and had relatively permissive attitudes toward practices such as homosexuality and bisexuality (Boswell, 1980). For instance, relatively common in ancient Greece was pederasty : an arrangement in which an older man would educate and mentor a male adolescent, who would have sex with him in return (Scanlon, 2005).
As a sharp contrast to the sexual permissiveness of the Greeks and Romans, consider the early Christians, who believed in a single deity and enforced a set of sharply defined rules that governed sexual behavior and the roles of men and women in society. Those who did not follow these rules were subject to severe punishment, both here on earth and (as they believed) in the afterlife. For example, one of the most prominent Christian scholars, St Paul, wrote extensively about the sinful nature of any form of sex outside of heterosexual marriage and praised the ideals of celibacy and chastity (i.e., remaining unmarried and sexually pure). St Augustine expanded upon these notions in his writings, but went even further in declaring that female submissiveness was part of God’s plan. As part of this, he considered the only “natural” sexual position to be one in which the man was on top of the women (Wiesner-Hanks, 2000). Given these strict rules for sexual and gender roles and the harsh punishments for violating them, sexuality became very restricted in Christian countries, and these effects can still be felt today.
Most other early religions viewed sex in similar terms (i.e., as a sinful activity that should only exist within the confines of marriage) and promoted gender roles characterized by male dominance and female submissiveness. However, the extremity of these views varied. For instance, according to Islam, a religion that spread throughout the Middle East and Asia a few centuries after the birth of Christianity, intercourse within marriage is seen as a religious deed and is viewed positively. In fact, it is seen as a higher state than remaining single and celibate, which is quite a departure from the writings of Christian scholars such as St Paul. Despite promoting a slightly more permissive view in this regard, Muslims are in many ways more restrictive when it comes to gender. For example, in a high proportion of Muslim societies past and present, female modesty in clothing is mandated, and women have very few rights – they may not even be permitted to leave their homes unless accompanied by their husband or a male relative.
Figure 1.1 The ancient Greeks and Romans believed in gods and goddesses devoted to love and sex, such as Aphrodite, from whom aphrodisiacs got their name. © perseomedusa/123RF.COM .
Taoism (a belief system with its origins in ancient China) offers another somewhat more permissive view when it comes to sex. For example, according to Taoist beliefs, sexual intercourse serves to balance the opposing forces of yin and yang, with yin representing female energy and yang representing male energy. Sex is thus held in very high regard, and is seen as serving a number of important functions beyond reproduction. However, this belief system was largely replaced by much more sexually conservative views with the rise of Confucianism about a thousand years ago. As a result of this shift, China continues to hold relatively conservative views of sex to this day.
Of course, religion is not the only cultural force acting upon sexuality. Science and the popular media play very large roles as well. We will discuss the role of science in detail in the next chapter, and the ways in which the emergence of a scientific enterprise devoted exclusively to sexuality has impacted sexual attitudes and behaviors. We will focus here on the role of the media, which in today’s world includes television and movies, songs, advertisements, newspapers, magazines, as well as the Internet. Because of the media’s omnipresence in our everyday lives, it has multiple opportunities to affect us in very visual and dramatic ways.
Since its invention, television has gradually come to include more and more sexual content, albeit with a bit of social resistance along the way. Believe it or not, it was once considered controversial for a television program to include an interracial couple (such as on the 1970s program The Jeffersons) or a single, pregnant woman who decides to have a baby on her own (such as on the 1990s program Murphy Brown). These things are pretty tame by today’s standards, especially when you consider that programmers are now talking about showing full-frontal nudity and group sex scenes on prime time cable (Strauss, 2010). For a sampling of some of the ways that television shows have pushed the sexual envelope in recent years, see Table 1.2. Of course, television’s evolution in this regard was not in isolation. Popular songs, music videos, and video games have become more explicit over time as well. Proponents of social learning theory (a topic we will discuss later in this chapter) argue that these sexualized media depictions have contributed to some profound changes in sexual attitudes and behaviors over the past few decades.
Table 1.2