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First published in Great Britain by Allen Lane 2013
Published in Penguin Books 2014
Copyright © Richard Barber, 2013
The moral right of the author has been asserted
Cover: The Battle of Crecy by the Boucicaut Master (Cotton Nero E. II pt.2, fol.152v) in the British Library, London, UK / © British Library Board. All Rights Reserved /Photograph: The Bridgeman Art Library
Cover design: Coralie Bickford-Smith
All rights reserved
ISBN: 978-1-846-14763-0
Maps and Diagrams
A Note on Terms
Companions of the Garter Elected 1349–1361
List of Illustrations
Preface and Acknowledgements
Different Voices: Reading the Evidence
PART ONE
The Rise of English Power
Prologue: The Political Background
1 Edward, Philippa and their Comrades 1327–1330
2 ‘A jolly young life’: Tournaments, Festivals, Display
3 Apprenticeship in War: Scotland and Flanders 1332–1340
4 The Kingdom of France
5 ‘As it was in the days of King Arthur’
6 The Crécy Campaign
7 The Battle at Crécy
PART TWO
The Company of the Garter
8 The Royal Chapels and the College of St George at Windsor
9 ‘The company of the knights of Saint George de la gartiere’
PART THREE
The World of the Garter Companions
10 Knightly Associations: Orders, Companies, Fraternities
11 Knights in their Own Words
12 Laws of War and the Reality of Warfare
PART FOUR
A Question of Honour
13 The Garter Companions at War
14 The Most Noble Order of the Garter
Epilogue: The Legends
Illustrations
Appendix 1. The English Battle Formation at Crécy: A Hypothetical Reconstruction
Appendix 2. Eustace (Sauchet) d’Auberchicourt
Appendix 3. Sources for Biographical Material on the Companions of the Garter Elected before 1361
Appendix 4. Chronological List of Royal Tournaments of Edward III
Appendix 5. The Statutes of the Garter
Bibliography
Notes
Abbreviations
For Helen
16 August 1942–17 February 2013
1. Edward III, on the lion of England, is given a sword by Philip V of France, while Philip VI cowers beneath. From a manuscript of c. 1360–70 (© The British Library Board, MS Egerton 3277, fo. 68v).
2. Edward III gives the charter for the principality of Aquitaine to Edward prince of Wales. From the original charter of 1362 (© The British Library Board, MS Cotton Nero DVI, fo. 31).
3. Philippa of Hainault, from the manuscript she gave to Edward at the time of their wedding (Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, MS français 571, fo. 6).
4. Four-wheeled cart of type used by Edward’s army in 1346. From the Roman d’Alexandre, c. 1344 (The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford, MS 264, fo. 83v).
5. Archery practice, from the Luttrell Psalter, c. 1335 (© The British Library Board, Add. MS 42150, fo. 147v).
6. An early bombard, from the treatise presented by Walter de Milemete to Edward III in 1327–8 (The Governing Body of Christ Church College, Oxford, MS 92, fo. 70b).
7. Tents, from the Roman d’Alexandre, c. 1344 (The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford, MS 264, fo. 83v).
8. A reconstruction of the Garter pavise of c. 1350 (John Roberts).
9. An army on the march from a manuscript of c. 1350–75 (© The British Library Board, MS Egerton 1894, fo. 8v).
10. St George in Garter robes, with the duke of Bedford kneeling before him. From the Bedford Hours, 1423 (© The British Library Board, Add. MS 18850, fo. 256v).
11. St George’s chapel in the 1430s (Eton College, Windsor, MS 213).
12. William Bruges, Garter king at arms, with St George, from his Garter Book of c. 1430 (© The British Library Board, MS Stowe 594, fo. 7v).
13. A figure from the Luttrell Psalter (© The British Library Board, Add. MS 42150, fo. 158v).
14. A knight wearing the Garter, from an Italian fresco of c. 1370 (detail from Andrea di Bonaiuto, The Way of Salvation, Chiesa di Santa Maria Novella, Florence).
15. Dancers and musicians, from a French manuscript of c. 1275–1300 (Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, MS français 146, fo. 34).
16. The Chichester-Constable chasuble. Made in England c. 1330–50 (©The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource/Scala, Florence, 27.162.1).
17–18. Miniatures from the works of Gilles li Muisit, showing fashionable dress at Tournai, about 1352–3. (Bibliothèque Royale, Brussels, MS IV 119, fos. 168 and 213).
19. Two groups of fashionable courtiers, dancing and conversing. From the Roman d’Alexandre, c. 1344 (The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford, MS 264, fo. 181v).
20. Feast given at St Denis in 1378 by Charles V. The miniature dates from the following year (Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, MS français 2813, fo. 47v).
21. Embroidered purse, French, second half of the fourteenth century (©RMN-Grand Palais (Musée de Cluny – Musée National du Moyen-Âge)/Jean-Gilles Berizzi).
22. Leopards from a horse trapper, English, fourteenth century (©RMN-Grand Palais (Musée de Cluny – Musée National du Moyen-Âge) / Franck Raux).
23. Tapestry of the Scrope of Masham arms, fifteenth century (Dean and Chapter of York Cathedral).
24. Carriage from the Luttrell Psalter. (© The British Library Board, British Library Add. MS 42150, fos. 181v–182r).
25. A tournament mêlée, from an Italian manuscript of 1352–62. (© The British Library Board, British Library Add. MS 12228, fos. 150v–151).
26. The chest made to contain the documents regarding the confirmation of the treaty of Brétigny at Crécy in October 1360 (The National Archives, E27/8).
27. Replicas of the heraldic achievements of Edward prince of Wales (Dean and Chapter of Canterbury Cathedral).
Maps
1. France in the fourteenth century
2. The Low Countries
3. Windsor Castle, showing the site of the Round Table building of 1344 (Jill Atherton)
4. The Crécy campaign, 5 July 1346 to 3 September 1346
5. The siege of Caen, 26–30 July 1346
6. Cassini’s map of the mouth of the Somme, 1790, showing Blanchetaque
7. Cassini’s map of Crécy, 1790
8. Windsor Castle, showing the original site of St George’s chapel (Jill Atherton)
9. Prince Edward’s raid into Languedoc, 1355
10. The Poitiers campaign, 1356
Diagrams
A. The rival claimants to the French throne: a family tree laid out in such a way that Edward appears visually as the first claimant
B. Conjectural reconstruction of English battle formation at Crécy
Writing about medieval history always poses problems of terminology, and there are two particularly difficult concepts at the heart of the present book. The first is that of knighthood and chivalry, for which we have two words in English; in all other European languages there is only one, and the subtle distinction between the status of being a knight and the ideology of that status is lost. I have used knighthood for both, as chivalry has – thanks to Sir Walter Scott and the Victorians – acquired romantic overtones which are only occasionally appropriate.
‘Man at arms’ presents another problem; it is a term used generally and quite vaguely in medieval texts. I have used it to denote any soldier wearing metal armour, which means that they could be armoured infantry or the most heavily armed knights; it is not a rank but a classification. It excludes archers, who would have been lightly armed, and infantry with short lances or daggers who might have leather armour or heavy quilted jerkins as protection.
For reasons which will appear in the course of the book, I have followed the usage of the royal accountants of Edward III, and called what we know today as ‘the Order of the Garter’ ‘the Company of the Garter’, except for references to the body of Garter knights after 1415, when the contemporary sources begin to use the word ‘Order’.
In order not to confuse the reader, I have used what might be called the personal name for nobility: Henry of Grosmont is successively earl of Derby, earl of Lancaster and duke of Lancaster, for example, and I have simply called him Henry of Grosmont throughout. Full titles can be found in the index.
Countries and regions are generally given their modern names; in some cases this is anachronistic or slightly misleading, but, again, it simplifies an already complicated text.
Currency is normally in sterling, as pounds, shillings (20 to the pound) and pence (12 to the shilling); the mark is two-thirds of a pound, or 13s. 4d. The French livres tournois were usually exchanged at five to the pound.
All unattributed translations are by the author. In these cases, the original source is cited for reference.
This list covers all the traditional founding knights listed in the statutes, together with those appointed subsequently, again according to the traditional lists, down to 1361. The uncertainities and problems surrounding these lists are discussed on pp. 299–300.
Edward III
Edward prince of Wales
Henry of Grosmont, earl of Derby and Leicester, later duke of Lancaster
Thomas Beauchamp, earl of Warwick
Roger Mortimer, later earl of March
William Montagu, second earl of Salisbury
Thomas Holland, later earl of Kent
Robert Ufford, earl of Suffolk
William Bohun, earl of Northampton
Jean de Grailly, captal de Buch
Ralph Stafford, later earl of Stafford
John, Lord Lisle, of Rougemont
John, Lord Beauchamp
John, Lord Mohun
John, Lord Grey, of Rotherfield
Reginald, Lord Cobham
Thomas, Lord Ughtred
Bartholomew Burghersh the younger
Hugh Courtenay
Richard Fitzsimon
Miles Stapleton, of Bedale
Thomas Wale
Hugh Wrottesley
Nigel Loring
John Chandos
James Audley
Otho Holland
Henry Eam (Oem)
Eustace (‘Sanchet’) d’Auberchicourt
Walter Pavely
William Fitzwarin
Walter Mauny
Frank van Hale
Richard de la Vache
Thomas Ufford
Edward, Lord Despenser
John Sully
In addition, the king’s three sons, Lionel, John and Edmund, were appointed in April 1361.
This book arose out of a conversation with Henry Summerson, medieval editor for the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, for whom I had written a number of entries on the knights of the Garter. At that point, the first group biographies were being added to ODNB, and my offer of an article on the original knights of the Garter was warmly accepted. However, I was not entirely happy with the result, which summarized existing scholarship; I felt there was more to be discovered, and my suggestion for a full-scale book on the question was encouraged by Simon Winder at Allen Lane. What follows is not what I expected to write, and has taken much longer into the bargain; I hope Simon feels that his patience has been rewarded. It has been a particularly difficult book to structure, tracing as it does the careers of individual knights as well as the world in which ‘the Company of the Garter’ came into being and the events which shaped it, and his advice has been particularly welcome. I also owe a great debt to Fionnuala Jervis, who read the text with particular attention to non sequiturs and obscurities, and to Lisa Barber, who challenged me on numerous points of scholarship from her considerable expertise on the early documents concerning the Company of the Garter: in both cases, the book was considerably improved.
In the narrative which follows, I have tried to avoid the temptation to speculate, the great lure of writing medieval history. There are therefore two discussions which I have put into appendices. These are both fascinating and potentially controversial questions. The nature of the English battle formation at Crécy will aways be a hypothesis, and in order to present the evidence as clearly as possible, I have tried to restrict the account of the battle in the main text to an analysis of the varied versions offered by the chroniclers. However, that analysis also points to a possible solution to the problem of how Edward drew up his army, and it is this which forms Appendix 1. I am deeply indebted to Sir Philip Preston for his contribution to the result, since he knows the topography of Crécy and the theories about the battlefield far better than I do, and he can also draw much better plans than I.
Appendix 2 discusses the identity of the mysterious ‘Sanchet d’Auberchicourt’ among the early knights of the Garter. Here I am grateful for the comments and references of Professor Michael Jones and Professor Michael Prestwich, and particularly for the sustained criticism of my argument by Lisa Barber; we have agreed to differ, but the argument has much improved my presentation of the case.
The other people to whom I owe a great debt are Mark Ormrod, who knows far more about Edward III than I do, for his encouragement and help, and for reading the draft version; and Paul Dryburgh and Jonathan Mackman, who have patiently hunted down references in the National Archives, and sent transcriptions and photographs, from which much of the detail in the book derives. Andrew Ayton helped to point me in the right direction at an early stage, and has also kindly read a draft version. Adrian Ailes greatly improved Chapter 14 on the evolution of the office of herald.
I have shamelessly questioned other scholars about specific points, and doubtless bored them with my latest speculations on obscure details. I am grateful to those who have listened patiently and read parts of the book, particularly Jonathan Boulton, Michael Jones, Chris Given-Wilson, Christopher Allmand and Kelly DeVries. Maurizio Campanelli, whose paper at the Leeds Conference some years ago led me to the dramatic account of the battle of Crécy in an anonymous Roman chronicle which had been overlooked by historians for more than two centuries since it was first printed, has been generous in letting me publish before his own account has appeared in print. Others who have helped on linguistic matters are Michael Lapidge and Bart Besamusca, while Werner Paravicini, whose account of the Prussian crusaders has been a basic text, has also contributed his extensive knowledge of Continental heraldry. Linne Mooney, when the book was almost complete, explained that the poem about the Garter knights which was attributed to Chaucer was in fact by Thomas Hoccleve. My thanks go also to Elizabeth Archibald, Christopher Berard and Nigel Saul for discussions on points ranging from heralds in fifteenth-century plays to the relationship between Arthurian romance and chronicles and the early form of the company itself.
I discussed modern military matters with Jamie Lowther-Pinkerton, and medieval seamanship with the late Alan Gurney, whose friendship and nautical knowledge are sorely missed. My sister Philippa Lane shared her knowledge of harvests, chalky soil and the decreasing height of corn. On more obviously relevant topics, I am grateful to Thomas Woodcock and Hubert Chesshyre at the College of Arms, and particularly to Tim Tatton-Brown on Windsor Castle: it was his knowledge of the building accounts there which inspired the book on Edward III’s Round Table building while we worked with Time Team on its excavation in August 2006.
As to books, the London Library’s resources account for most of the titles quoted in the bibliography: their staff as always have responded impeccably to innumerable requests. Cambridge University Library provided many of the remainder, together with the British Library, the Society of Antiquaries and the Bodleian Library. Finally, I am grateful for the help of Clare Rider, archivist of St George’s Windsor; Robert Yorke, librarian at the College of Arms, and to Elisabeth A. Stuart at the Duchy of Cornwall office for the loan of a manuscript translation of Henxteworth’s journal.
I am grateful to the copy-editor, Elizabeth Stratford, for her close reading of the text, and particularly for detecting the points where I had contradicted myself over dates and facts; and to the proofreader, Stephen Ryan, for his thorough work. Similarly, the work of the indexer, Auriol Griffith–Jones, helped to uncover problems over the treatment of names and a number of actual errors. Keeping control of often very disparate material is always difficult, and their work has eliminated most, if not all, of the resulting vagaries.
I am aware that, despite all this expert advice, errors and omissions undoubtedly remain, for which I am unwittingly responsible. I am, however, entirely aware of my responsibility for the revisionist view both of the tactics of the battle of Crécy and of the nature of the Company of the Garter itself, and regard this simply as a contribution to an ongoing scholarly debate. I may well be wrong on both counts, but would be disappointed if I have not made at least a reasonable case to be answered, and encouraged other scholars to look again at the evidence.