Contents
List of Illustrations
Notes on Contributors
Abbreviations
Preface
Introduction
Acknowledgments
PART I: Material Culture and Its Impact on Social Configuration
CHAPTER 1: Development of Baths and Public Bathing during the Roman Republic
1 Introduction
2 Bathing as Pleasure
3 Bathing as Luxury
4 Bathing and Ancient Medicine
5 Bathing Ritual and Activities
6 Ethical and Moral Concerns and Criticism of Roman Baths
7 Baths of the Greeks
8 Bathing in the Context of the Gymnasium
9 Italian Farm Bathing
10 Heating and Water Supply Systems
11 Sergius Orata and the Invention of the Hypocaust
12 Physical Evidence
13 Dissemination of the Row-Type Baths
CHAPTER 2: Public Entertainment Structures
1 Introduction
2 Theaters
3 Amphitheaters
4 Circuses
5 Conclusions
CHAPTER 3: Republican Houses
1 Introduction
2 Where to Find the Republican Domus
3 The Layout of the Atrium House
4 Development of the Atrium House
5 Other Types of Housing
6 Spatial Syntax
7 Decoration
8 The View
9 Horti
CHAPTER 4: Tombs and Funerary Monuments
1 Introduction
2 The Situation before the Second Century
3 Roman and Italian Necropolises of the Second Century
4 Streetside Tombs in Late Republican and Early Augustan Times
5 Ostia
6 Northern and Eastern Italy
7 Etruria
8 Campania
9 Apulia
10 Central Italy
11 Picenum and Umbria
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 5: Before Sigillata: Black-Gloss Pottery and Its Cultural Dimensions
1 Introduction
2 Production Techniques and Technological Choices
3 Shapes, Typologies and Chronologies
4 Black-Gloss Wares and Cultural History
5 The Future Scope of Ceramic Culture in the Archaeology of the Roman Republic
CHAPTER 6: Amphoras and Shipwrecks: Wine from the Tyrrhenian Coast at the End of the Republic and Its Distribution in Gaul
1 Introduction
2 Italian Wines and the Vineyards of the Tyrrhenian Coast
3 What Can We Say about Shipwrecks?
4 Tyrrhenian Wine Consumption in Gaul
5 The Means of Distribution of Italian Wine in Gaul
6 The End of the Wine Trade from Italy
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 7: Coins and the Archaeology of the Roman Republic
1 Introduction
2 Coins in Excavated Strata
3 Coins and Chronology
4 Coins and Coin Use
5 Coins in Hoards
6 Case Study: The Introduction of the Iberian Denarius
7 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 8: Weapons and the Army
1 Introduction
2 Archaeological Sources and Research
3 The Early Republican Army and Its Weapons
4 The Manipular Army and Its Weapons
5 The Late Republican Army and Its Weapons
6 Conclusion
CHAPTER 9: Bodies of Evidence: Skeletal Analysis in Roman Greece and Cyprus
1 Introduction
2 Biological Anthropology in the Archaeological Context
3 Minimum Number of Individuals
4 Sex
5 Age
6 Stature
7 Dentition
8 Pathology
9 Conclusions
CHAPTER 10: Population and Demographic Studies
1 Introduction
2 Ancient Evidence, Comparative Data and Demographic Models
3 Population Structure and Population Size
4 Roman Italy’s Population: The Census Figures
5 The Augustan Census Figures and Their Interpretation
6 The Implications of the Alternative Explanations of Augustan Census Figures
7 A Way Out of the Impasse?
8 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
PART II: Archaeology and the Landscape
CHAPTER 11: Looking at Early Rome with Fresh Eyes: Transforming the Landscape
1 Introduction
2 Getting Down to the Bottom of Things
3 Three Misconceptions
4 Coring in the Velabrum
5 The Clay Beds in the Velabrum
6 Returning to the Aims of the Chapter
7 Adding the Third Dimension in Rome
8 Montaigne’s Challenge
9 Landscape Transformations in Early Rome
10 On the Origins of the Forum
11 The Siting of the Temple of Jupiter
CHAPTER 12: Survey, Settlement and Land Use in Republican Italy
1 Introduction
2 Background
3 Field Survey: Methodological Problems
4 Settlement Development and Land Use: The Second Century
5 Conclusions
CHAPTER 13: Agriculture and the Environment of Republican Italy
1 Introduction
2 Landscape and Environment
3 Farming in Italy
4 Agrarian Crisis
5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 14: No Holiday Camp: The Roman Republican Army Camp as a Fine-Tuned Instrument of War
1 Introduction
2 History of Research into Republican Camps
3 The Form of Republican Camps
4 The Use of Camps
5 Creating the Camp
6 Camp Defenses
7 Entrances
8 Camp-Construction Training
9 The Archaeological Evidence
CHAPTER 15: Reconstructing Religious Ritual in Italy
1 Introduction
2 Evidence from Visual Representations
3 Votive Material
4 Ritual Practice and Architectural Environments: The Sanctuary Phenomenon
5 Theaters
6 Summary
PART III: Archaeology and Ancient Technology
CHAPTER 16: The Orientation of Towns and Centuriation
1 Introduction
2 Roman City Planning
3 Roman Agrimensores
4 Rural Planning as Centuriation
5 Roman Corinth
6 Conclusions
CHAPTER 17: Scientia in Republican Era Stone and Concrete Masonry
1 Republican Era Construction Engineering
2 Geologic Foundations of Rome
3 Examples of Dimension Stone Masonry
4 Examples of Concrete Masonry
5 Historical Context of Construction Innovations
CHAPTER 18: Aqueducts and Water Supply
1 Introduction
2 General Principles
3 Construction
4 Urban Distribution
5 The Four Republican Aqueducts of Rome
6 Conclusion
CHAPTER 19: Roads and Bridges
1 Introduction
2 Road Building in the Roman Republic
3 Agricultural Development, Road Building and Town Foundation: The Via Appia
4 The Extension of Rome’s Hinterland: The Via Flaminia
5 Transhumance, Water Resources and Settlement: The Via Tiburtina
6 A Bridge and a Healing Sanctuary for Travelers
7 Road Building in the Provinces: The Via Egnatia and the Via Domitia
8 Movement and Space in the Roman Republic
CHAPTER 20: Villas and Agriculture in Republican Italy
1 Introduction
2 Current State of Villa Scholarship
3 What Is the Republican Villa?
4 Early Rural Architecture in Central Italy
5 The “Early Villa”
6 Villas and the Middle Republic
7 Late Republican Villas
8 Villas and Agriculture
9 Conclusions
CHAPTER 21: Ports
1 Introduction
2 The Fourth Century
3 The Third Century
4 The Second Century
5 The First Century
PART IV: The Archaeology of Identity
CHAPTER 22: Material Culture, Italic Identities and the Romanization of Italy
1 Introduction
2 The Terms of the Debate: De-centering Rome and Italic Identities
3 De-centering Rome
4 Cultural Interaction in Practice
5 Seizing Symbols of Power
6 Italic Identities: Beyond Ethnic Regionalism?
7 Archaeology and Ethnic Identity
8 Asserting Local Distinctiveness in New Forms
9 Questioning Continuity: Roman Imperialism and Italic Identities
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 23: The Importance of Being Elite: The Archaeology of Identity in Etruria (500–200)
1 Introduction
2 Etruscan Identity, Material Culture and Social Ritual
3 National, Ethnic and Civic Identities
4 Modern Mythologies of “-ization,” Greek, Roman or Otherwise
5 Religious Identity
6 Metalwork as Material Production in the Fifth through Second Centuries
7 Funerary Sculpture, Gender and Family
8 Tomb Painting in the Fourth and Third Centuries
9 Conclusion
CHAPTER 24: Greeks, Lucanians and Romans at Poseidonia/Paestum (South Italy)
1 Background
2 The Poseidonia/Paestum Case Study
3 Greek Poseidonia
4 Lucanian Paestum
5 Aristoxenus on the “Barbarization” of Poseidonia
6 The Latin Colony in 273
7 Concluding Remarks
CHAPTER 25: Central Apennine Italy: The Case of Samnium
1 Introduction
2 The Region
3 Cemeteries, Sanctuaries and Settlements
4 Material Culture
5 Recent Trends and Open Questions: Landscape Archaeology and Daunian-Style Pottery
6 Conclusion: Conceptualizing Samnium
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 26: Early Rome and the Making of “Roman” Identity through Architecture and City Planning
1 The Foundation of Rome
2 The Location and Geology of Rome
3 Streams, Springs and Water Supply
4 Archaeological Chronology
5 Stray Finds
6 Walls and Gates
7 Roads and Bridges
8 Burials
9 Huts and Houses
10 Temples and Sacred Places
11 Votive Deposits
12 Public Spaces
13 Art Objects
14 Inscriptions
15 Questions of Chronology and Development of Society
16 The Early City
17 Creation and Growth of the City of Early Rome
18 Rome of the Romans
19 Conclusions
PART V: The Archaeology of Empire during the Republic
CHAPTER 27: Material Culture and Identity in the Late Roman Republic (c. 200–c. 20)
1 Introduction: Rome as Part of a Hellenistic Koine
2 Identity
3 Thinking about Material Culture and Identity in the Late Roman Republic
4 Style
5 Identity, Material Culture and Style in the Late Roman Republic
6 Roman Identity and Romanitas
7 History and Archaeology
8 Questions of Scale
CHAPTER 28: The Archaeology of Mid-Republican Rome: The Emergence of a Mediterranean Capital
1 Introduction
2 The Rise of Individualism and a Regional Capital in the Making: The Onset
3 The Rise of Individualism and a Regional Capital in the Making: Normalizing
4 A Mediterranean Capital in the Making: Renewal of the Urban Infrastructure
5 A Mediterranean Capital in the Making: Monumentalism and the Conquest of Greece
6 A Mediterranean Capital in the Making: Manubial Structures
7 The Critical Transformation
CHAPTER 29: The Late Republican City of Rome
1 Introduction
2 The First Half of the First Century
3 Approaches to the Palatine Hill
4 The Theater Complex of Pompey
5 The Building Projects of Caesar
6 Late Republican Houses of the Elite
7 Rome Poised to Become an Imperial City
CHAPTER 30: Cosa
1 Introduction
2 Frank E. Brown and the Early Excavations of Cosa
3 The Walls of Cosa
4 The Arx
5 The Forum
6 Houses
7 The Port
8 The Hinterland of Cosa
9 The Impact of the Work at Cosa
CHAPTER 31: Becoming Roman Overseas? Sicily and Sardinia in the Later Roman Republic
1 Introduction
2 Sicily
3 Sardinia
CHAPTER 32: The Archaeology of Africa in the Roman Republic
1 Early Intervention and the Conquest of the Province
2 People
3 Approaches to Africa in the Republican Period
4 Urban Landscapes
5 Rural Landscapes
6 Mortuary Landscapes
7 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 33: Hispania: From the Roman Republic to the Reign of Augustus
1 Introduction
2 The Second Punic War
3 The Second Century
4 The First Century
5 Augustus and the End of the Conquest of Hispania
Acknowledgments
CHAPTER 34: The Archaeology of Palestine in the Republican Period
1 Introduction
2 The Late Hellenistic Period, c. 200–c. 140, in the North
3 The Hellenistic Period, c. 200–c. 140, in the South
4 The Hasmonean Period, c. 165–c. 40
5 Herod, c. 40–4
CHAPTER 35: Greece and the Roman Republic: Athens and Corinth from the Late Third Century to the Augustan Era
1 Introduction
2 Roman Athens
3 Corinth, from 146 bce to 14 ce
4 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
PART VI: Republican Archaeology and the Twenty-First Century
CHAPTER 36: Computer Technologies and Republican Archaeology at Pompeii
1 Questions of Urban Development in Pre-Roman and Republican Pompeii
2 Digital Technologies in the Archaeology of Pre-Roman and Republican Pompeii
3 Potentials and Pitfalls in Digital Archaeology at Pompeii
CHAPTER 37: Archaeology and Acquisition: The Experience of Republican Rome
1 Introduction
2 Livy’s Depiction of Problematic Booty
3 The Fall of Syracuse and Greek Art
4 The Fall of Carthage and Scipio Aemilianus’s Repatriations
5 The Fall of Corinth and L. Mummius’s Rededications
6 Stolen Statues in Peacetime: Sicily Endures Verres
7 Archaeology and Acquisition in Peace and War
Reference
Index
This series provides sophisticated and authoritative overviews of periods of ancient history, genres of classical literature, and the most important themes in ancient culture. Each volume comprises approximately twenty-five and forty concise essays written by individual scholars within their area of specialization. The essays are written in a clear, provocative, and lively manner, designed for an international audience of scholars, students, and general readers.
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A Companion to the Roman Army
Edited by Paul Erdkamp
A Companion to the Roman Republic
Edited by Nathan Rosenstein and Robert Morstein-Marx
A Companion to the Roman Empire
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A Companion to the Classical Greek World
Edited by Konrad H. Kinzl
A Companion to the Ancient Near East
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A Companion to Catullus
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A Companion to Roman Religion
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A Companion to Greek Religion
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A Companion to the Classical Tradition
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A Companion to Roman Rhetoric
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A Companion to Vergil’s Aeneid and its Tradition
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A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds
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A Companion to Greek Mythology
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A Companion to the Latin Language
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A Companion to Tacitus
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A Companion to Women in the Ancient World
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A Companion to Sophocles
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A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East
Edited by Daniel Potts
A Companion to Roman Love Elegy
Edited by Barbara K. Gold
A Companion to Greek Art
Edited by Tyler Jo Smith and Dimitris Plantzos
A Companion to Persius and Juvenal
Edited by Susanna Braund and Josiah Osgood
A Companion to the Archaeology of the Roman Republic
Jane DeRose Evans
This edition first published 2013
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A companion to the archaeology of the Roman Republic / edited by Jane DeRose Evans.
pages cm. – (Blackwell companions to the ancient world)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
“A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., publication.”
ISBN 978-1-4051-9966-7 (hardback : alkaline paper) – ISBN 978-1-118-55712-9 (Wiley Online Libary) – ISBN 978-1-118-55713-6 (Bro) – ISBN 978-1-118-55714-3 (eMobi) – ISBN 978-1-118-55715-0 (ePDF) – ISBN 978-1-118-55716-7 (ePub) 1. Rome–History–Republic, 510–265 B.C. 2. Rome–History–Republic, 265–30 B.C. 3. Rome–Antiquities. 4. Social archaeology–Rome. 5. Material culture–Rome. 6. Landscape archaeology–Rome. 7. Technology–Social aspects–Rome. 8. Group identity–Rome. 9. Imperialism–Social aspects–Rome. I. Evans, Jane DeRose, 1956–
DG77.C583 2013
937′.02–dc23
2012042774
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Cover image: Largo di Torre Argentina. Rome, Italy © Marka / SuperStock
Cover design by Workhaus
1 | A Map of the extent of the Republican empire at the death of Caesar |
2 | B Map of the major cultural groups in Republican Italy |
1.1 | Reconstruction of a typical apodyterium in use in the Late Republican period |
1.2 | Plan of the Stabian Baths, Pompeii, c. 80 |
1.3 | Schematic hypocaust system of a Roman bath |
1.4 | The Republican Baths in Fregellae, restored plan |
2.1 | Plan of the Large Theater at Pompeii |
2.2 | Plan of the Amphitheater at Pompeii |
2.3 | View of the arena and seating of the Amphitheater at Pompeii |
2.4 | Theater at Bononia, reconstructed outer theater façade |
3.1 | Plan of the house blocks on the lower slopes of the Palatine, Rome |
3.2 | Aerial view of the insulae of Regio VI, Pompeii |
3.3 | Plan of the House of Diana at Cosa |
3.4 | Second Style wall in the Corinthian oecus of the House of the Labyrinth, Pompeii |
4.1 | Tomb of the Flavii by the Porta Nocera, Pompeii |
4.2 | Urn of Q. Minucius Saturninus, from Isernia |
4.3 | Grave stone of L. Vesprius, from Assisi |
5.1 | Typology of the widespread forme Morel 2783 |
6.1 | Typical profiles and sections of Dressel 1 Amphoras |
6.2 | Trade routes of Dressel 1 Amphoras in the Republican era. |
8.1 | Late Republican soldiers, from the so-called Domitius Ahenobarbus Altar in the Louvre Museum |
8.2 | Location of major hoard, type- and find sites for Republican weapons |
8.3 | Spanish sword from Delos |
9.1 | Male and female pelvises showing features used in sex determination |
9.2 | Adult phalanges (finger bones) and juvenile phalanges |
9.3 | Left os coxa (hip bone) showing the pubic symphysis and auricular surface which can be used to age adults |
9.4 | Skull sutures in various stages of fusion |
9.5 | Mandibular incisor with a large carious lesion and mandibular canine tooth with two linear enamel hypoplasias |
9.6 | The upper portion of the eye orbit (socket) of a person who suffered from anemia |
11.1 | Cross-section showing the environmental settings of the Capitoline Hill, the Velabrum Valley and the Palatine Hill |
11.2 | Map of the main sites located in and around the Forum |
12.1 | Comparative survey trends in Italy |
12.2 | Sites with grey glaze pottery in the upper Bradano Valley |
13.1 | Map of Italy, showing sites mentioned in the text |
14.1 | Reconstruction of a Polybian manipular double-consular camp |
14.2 | Detailed reconstruction of the “south-western quarter” of the Polybian manipular double-consular camp |
14.3 | The camps at Renieblas, Spain220 |
14.4 | The camps and siegeworks around Numantia, Spain |
14.5 | Reconstruction of the cohort-organized, single-consular camp of the late second century |
14.6 | Types of Roman defended camp entrances |
16.1 | Centuriation of the territorium of Corinth, dating to the time of the Caesarian colony |
16.2 | Centuriation of the urban center of Corinth, dating to the time of the Caesarian colony |
16.3 | Centuriation of the territorium of Corinth, dating to the time of the Flavian colony |
17.1 | Quarries in the vicinity of Rome |
17.2 | Uniaxial compressive strengths of Roman tuffs and travertine |
19.1 | Ponte di Nona, one of the best preserved Republican bridges on the Via Praenestina |
19.2 | Map of the development of the public roads in the Republic |
19.3 | Plan of the expansion of the Roman colony of Minturnae |
20.1 | Plan of the Auditorium site |
20.2 | Typological sampling of Hellenistic farmhouses and villas |
20.3 | Plan of the villa at Settefinestre |
21.1 | Hypothetical reconstruction of the port at Cosa in the late second and first centuries |
21.2 | Reconstruction of the port of Forum Iulii in the late first century |
22.1 | The terrace sanctuary at Munigua, two views |
22.2 | The sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia at Praeneste |
22.3 | The sanctuary of Hercules Victor at Tibur |
23.1 | Helmet of Negau type from Vetulonia, ritually crushed |
23.2 | Porta Marzia, Perugia |
23.3 | Urn from the Tomb of the Calisna Sepu, Monteriggioni |
24.1 | Plan of Poseidonia-Paestum |
24.2 | Sanctuary and cemetery sites around Paestum, 600–300 BCE |
24.3 | Short wall of Tomb 61 of the Andriolo urban cemetery: woman facing a mounted warrior |
24.4 | Detail of the Tomb of the Magistrate (Tomb 1), Spinazzo cemetery: seated magistrate |
25.1 | Map of Samnium, showing sites mentioned in text |
25.2 | Female grave from the necropolis of Opi, at the upper Sangro River Valley, sixth century |
25.3 | Plan of the sanctuary of Pietrabbondante |
25.4 | “Dea di Rapino,” sixth-century bronze statuette |
25.5 | Pottery of the so-called Daunian type, from Grave 7 at Guglionesi |
26.1 | The hills of Early Rome |
26.2 | Rome around.500 BCE |
28.1 | Pons Aemilius, first constructed in the second century BCE |
28.2 | Cloaca Maxima, as vaulted in the first half of the second century BCE |
28.3 | Terracotta figure of Mars from a pediment, found on the Via San di Gregorio |
28.4 | Marble temple by the Tiber, probably commissioned byL. Mummius |
29.1 | Plan of the Palatine in the first century |
29.2 | Plan of the Forum Romanum in the first century |
30.1 | Plan of Cosa, second phase of colonization |
30.2 | Polygonal masonry of the northwest gate, Cosa |
30.3 | Plan showing the site of Cosa, Le Colonne and Settefinestre |
31.1 | View of the remains of the second-century theater at Soluntum (Soluonto), Sicily |
31.2 | The Italic podium temple (the “Oratory of Phalaris”), Agrigentum, Sicily |
31.3 | Nora, Sardinia, temple thought to be of Asclepius |
31.4 | Statue base from Sulcis (Sant’Antioco), Sardinia, with bilingual inscription |
31.5 | Trilingual inscription in Latin, Greek and neo-Punic from San Nicolò Gerrei, Sardinia |
32.1 | North Africa in the Republican period, with provincial boundaries and sites mentioned in the text |
32.2 | Centuriation in North Africa, with sites mentioned in the text |
33.1 | Map of Republican Hispania, with sites mentioned in text |
33.2 | Tower of El Brull (Turó de Montgròs) |
33.3 | Wall of Tarragona |
33.4 | Funerary monument from Malla |
33.5 | Suggested reconstructions of the Trophy of Pompey in the Pyrenees |
34.1 | Map of Palestine, with sites mentioned in text |
34.2 | Aerial view of the excavations of the temple at Omrit |
34.3 | Detail of the excavations of the temple at Omrit |
34.4 | Reconstruction of the Early Imperial temple at Omrit |
34.5 | Aerial view of the compound of Hippos |
35.1 | Fragmentary base with inscription mentioning Brutus (I3366) |
35.2 | Athena Gate to the Roman Forum, Athens |
35.3 | Plan of the center of Roman Corinth |
36.1 | Three resistivity sections undertaken in the south-east corner of Pompeii Insula VII 6 |
36.2 | Photograph of a wall rectified using Hugin panoramic stitching software and resulting section drawing in Pompeii Insula VII |
36.3 | Cistern recovered in Pompeii, VII 6, 26: photograph and 3D surface mesh |
12.1 | Chronological breakdown of the Morel typology of black-gloss pottery |
16.1 | The north–south orientation and unit size for parcels around Corinth in the Flavian era |
26.1 | Table contrasting historical events, archaeological terminology and archaeological dates with events in early Rome |
32.1 | Phases of Roman imperialism in Africa |
Albert J. Ammerman is a Research Professor at Colgate University. He took his PhD in European Archaeology at the Institute of Archaeology, University of London (under the supervision of Prof. John D. Evans). Between 1985 and 2004, he carried out fieldwork at more than 15 different sites in the heart of ancient Rome, in close collaboration with both the Superintendency of Archaeology in Rome and the City of Rome. He has taught at Stanford University, SUNY Binghamton and the Universities of Parma and Trento. His publications include the results of his work on the origins of the Forum, the early Comitium, the Capitoline Hill, the Palatine Hill, the Velabrum and the clay beds there, and on the characterization of the earliest roof tiles and architectural terracottas at early sites in Rome, Latium and southern Etruria. He has also directed projects in Calabria (Neolithic), Venice (origins of the city) and Cyprus (pre-Neolithic sites and the origins of seafaring in the eastern Mediterranean).
Michael Anderson is an archaeologist and Assistant Professor in Classics at San Francisco State University who has studied ancient Pompeii since 1996. He directs the Via Consolare Project in Pompeii, which conducts excavations in Insula VII 6 and the area of the Villa delle Colonne a Mosaico. His research and publications relate to the use of GIS and computer technologies in archaeological research.
Jeffrey A. Becker is a Mediterranean archaeologist. He earned both an MA and a PhD at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Since 2007 he has been one of the principal investigators of the archaeological fieldwork at Gabii in central Italy undertaken by the University of Michigan and the Kelsey Museum of Archaeology. He is the co-editor of Roman Republican Villas: Architecture, Context, and Ideology (2011) and has held teaching appointments at the College of William & Mary, Boston University, McMaster University, and the Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology and the Ancient World at Brown University. Becker is presently Acting Director of the Ancient World Mapping Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
Penelope J.E. Davies is Associate Professor in Roman art and architecture at the University of Texas at Austin. Author of Death and the Emperor: The Funerary Monuments of the Roman Emperors from Augustus to Marcus Aurelius (2000, 2004), and co-author of Janson’s History of Art (2007, 2010), she currently focuses her research on public art and politics in Republican Rome.
Sylvia Diebner, a classical archaeologist, is the director of the photography archive at the German Archaeological Institute in Rome. Her publications include Aesernia – Venafrum: Untersuchungen zu den römischen Steindenkmälern zweier römischer Landstädte, 2 vols. (1979); “Frühkaiserzeitliche Urnen aus Picenum” (1982); Reperti funerari in Umbria a sinistra del Tevere. I sec. A.C –I sec. D.C. (1986); “Landstädtische Sepulkraldenkmäler aus Picenum” (2007); and “Aschenkisten aus Amelia: Handwerkstraditionen im südlichen Umbrien” (2008).
Michael Dobson studied archaeology at the University of Exeter and worked as an archaeologist in Exeter before returning to the University to teach Archaeological Computing. He is now Director of Flexible Combined Honours there. Interest in the Roman army and particularly Republican and early Imperial military installations began with his doctoral thesis. This continued research has included a number of publications and collaborations with archaeologists in Spain and Germany, including The Army of the Roman Republic: The Second Century BC, Polybius and the Camps at Numantia, Spain (2008).
Stephen L. Dyson is the Park Professor of Classics at the University of Buffalo. He has published extensively on the history of American archaeology in the Mediterranean Basin, (e.g. In Pursuit of Ancient Pasts: A History of Classical Archaeology in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, 2006). He has also written on the archaeology of the city of Rome (The Roman Countryside, 2003 and Rome: A Living Portrait of an Ancient City, 2010) and is preparing the final reports for his excavation in Capalbiaccio, near Cosa. Dyson has served as director for a National Endowment for the Humanities Summer Seminar for College and University Teachers at the American Academy in Rome, is a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London, and is a Corresponding Member of the German Archaeological Institute.
Ingrid Edlund-Berry is Professor Emerita in the Department of Classics at the University of Texas at Austin. Her research interests are the history and archaeology of ancient Italy, with special emphasis on Etruscan archaeology. Her excavation experience includes Poggio Civitate (Murlo) and Poggio Colla (Vicchio), S. Angelo Vecchio, Metaponto, and Morgantina. Among her publications are The Gods and the Place: Location andFunction of Sanctuaries in the Countrysideof Etruria and Magna Graecia (700–400 B.C.) (1987), The Seated and Standing Statue Akroteria from Poggio Civitate (Murlo) (1992), with Lucy Shoe Meritt, Etruscan and Republican Roman Mouldings (2000), and with G. Greco and J. Kenfield (eds), Deliciae Fictiles III: Architectural Terracottas in Ancient Italy: New Discoveries and Interpretations (2006).
Jane DeRose Evans is a numismatist and archaeologist; she is a Professor in the Art History Department, and affiliated with the Classics Department, of Temple University. Evans has worked on Roman sites in Turkey, France and Israel and is currently the numismatist for the Harvard Sardis Expeditions. Her publications include The Art of Persuasion: Political Propaganda from Aeneas to Brutus (1992), and The Joint Expedition to Caesarea Maritima: Excavation Reports v.6, The Coins and the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine Economy (2006).
Helena Fracchia is Professor of Classics in the Department of History and Classics, University of Alberta Edmonton, Canada. She is also the Director of the University of Alberta School in Italy (Cortona) and the Archaeological Field school at Ossaia. Her recent publications and fieldwork address various aspects of cultural and social history in pre-Roman southern Italy, the ceramic and survey evidence from the Upper Bradano Valley and Roccagloriosa as well as the Etruscan site and successive Roman villa at Ossaia in the Val di Chiana, Tuscany.
Andrew L. Goldman is an Associate Professor in the History Department of Gonzaga University, Spokane, Washington, and contributor to the Classical Civilizations Department. His areas of scholarly interest include the Roman military and the material culture of the Roman provinces, in particular those of Anatolia. Since 1992, his archaeological fieldwork has concentrated on the investigation of the Roman settlement at Gordion, where he has identified and excavated the first early Imperial auxiliary fort in Turkey.
Helen Goodchild is a landscape archaeologist and GIS specialist working in the Department of Archaeology at the University of York. She has worked as part of a number of large-scale landscape projects, including the Wroxeter Hinterland Project (United Kingdom), the Tiber ValleyProject (Italy) and the Cyrene Archaeological Project (Libya). Her PhD in 2007 investigated Roman agricultural production using computer modeling techniques, from which she has published a number of papers.
Alison B. Griffith is a senior lecturer in Classics at the University of Canterbury in Christchurch, New Zealand. Her research and publications focus primarily on archaeological evidence for Roman religion and cults, especially the Roman cult of Mithras. She has also published on aspects of the topography of ancient Rome and the application of cognitive science to the study of ancient religious practice.
Maurizio Gualtieri, PhD, University of Pennsylvania and Professor Emeritus in the Department of History and Classics, University of Alberta, Edmonton (Canada), is presently teaching Classical Archaeology at the University of Perugia (Italy). His fieldwork includes the Etruscan site of Artimino (Florence), as coordinator of the University of Pennsylvania University Museum team in Tuscany and then Roccagloriosa (Salerno) as scientific collaborator of the Department of Antiquities of Salerno, first, and then as co-director of the University of Alberta team. More recently he has conducted excavations at the Roman site of Oppido Lucano and co-directed the joint University of Perugia University of Alberta excavations at the late Republican villa of Ossaia (Cortona, Arezzo). His recent publications include La Lucania Romana. Cultura e Società nella Documentazione Archeologica (Quaderni di Ostraka, vol. 8) (2004) and a chapter on “Roman villas in southern Italy” for the forthcoming volume edited by G. Métraux and A. Marzano on The Roman Villa in the Mediterranean Basin.
Shelley Hales is a Senior Lecturer in Art and Visual Culture in the Department of Classics and Ancient History at the University of Bristol. She works on Roman domestic and personal art and its relation to identity-making in the ancient world as well as its reception (particularly in terms of the excavations at Pompeii) in the nineteenth century. She is the author of Roman Houses and Social Identity (2003) and has co-edited several volumes exploring these issues, including Material Culture and Social Identities in the Ancient World (2010) and Pompeii in the Public Imagination (2011).
A. Trevor Hodge (1930–2012) was a classical archaeologist (BA, MA, PhD, Dipl. Cl. Arch. [Cantab]), who from 1960 to 1997 was a Professor at Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada, from which (2010) he held the title of Distinguished Research Professor. His publications include The Woodwork of Greek Roofs (1960, repr. 2011), Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply (1992), Ancient Greek France (1998) and, as joint editor, Frontinus’ Legacy (2001). After retirement he often broadcasted on Canadian national radio and lectured on cruise ships.
Michael C. Hoff is Professor of Art History at the University of Nebraska. As a field archaeologist in Greece, Hoff has participated in excavations at the Athenian Agora, Corinth, Kavousi and Nemea. From 1997 to 2004, Hoff co-directed the architectural survey of the Rough Cilicia Archaeological Research Project, and since 2005 he has been director of excavations of the Antiochia ad Cragum Archaeological Research Project in Turkey. His publications include The Romanization of Athens (co-edited with Susan Rotroff, 1997); and Rough Cilicia. New Historical and Archaeological Approaches (co-edited with Rhys Townsend, 2011).
Marie D. Jackson is a Researcher in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of California at Berkeley. She received a Doctorat d’Université from Université de Nantes, France, in Structural Geology, and a PhD from Johns Hopkins University in Earth Sciences. She works on ancient Roman concretes from monumental buildings and seawater harbors, and their volcanic ash aggregates and pozzolanic cements, to describe the expertise of Roman builders and apply their methods to modern sustainable concretes. She has numerous publications in journals such as Archaeometry, American Journal of Archaeology, Journal of Archaeological Science and Geoarchaeology.
Cynthia K. Kosso is a Professor in the Department of History at Northern Arizona University. She received her PhD in History and Classics from the University of Illinois at Chicago, and her Master’s degrees in Ancient History and Classical Archaeology from the University of Minnesota. Her professional interests are interdisciplinary in nature – from the translation of ancient languages and the study of innovation in ancient societies, to public and economic history as reflected in material evidence. She has co-edited several recent collections of essays, including The Nature of Water, Baths, Bathing, and Hygiene from Antiquity through the Renaissance (2009).
Fanette Laubenheimer is the Research Director (emeritus) at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), where her research projects centered on the economic history of the Roman world and especially amphoras. For 25 years she directed the excavation of a potters’ complex which produced amphoras in southern France, at Sallèles d’Aude. Part of the work was to ensure that the excavations be protected and presented to the public; the museum above the site evokes a bird with outstretched wings protecting the archaeological structures. She is the author of several books and a number of articles.
Ray Laurence is Professor of Roman History and Archaeology at the University of Kent (United Kingdom). He is the author of a number of books, including The Roads of Roman Italy: Mobility and Cultural Change (1999) and Roman Pompeii: Space and Society (2nd edn, 2007), co-author of The City in the Roman West (2011) and co-editor of Rome, Pompeii and Ostia: Movement and Space (2011).
Elio Lo Cascio is Professor of Roman History at Sapienza Università di Roma. He has published extensively on the demography and economy of the ancient Roman world, including Il princeps e il suo impero: Studi di storia amministrativa e finanziaria romana (2000) and Crescita e declino: Studi di storia dell’economia romana (2009). His many articles and edited volumes show his main areas of interest: the history of the administration of the Roman Empire; the institutional history of the Roman Republic; the economic and social history of Rome, from the Republic to the late Empire, with particular emphasis on monetary history; and Roman population history and the impact of demographic change on the economy and society of the Roman Empire. He has also written on late Republican municipal legislation; on the city of Rome and on Roman cities and their elites, especially on Pompeii; and on the dynamics of Romanization.
Margaret M. Miles is the Andrew W. Mellon Professor of Classical Studies at the American School of Classical Studies in Athens, Greece, and Professor of Art History and Classics at the University of California, Irvine. Her previous publications include a study of the Temple of Nemesis at Rhamnous (1989), a volume on the City Eleusinion in the Athenian Agora (1998), and Art as Plunder (2008), a study of Cicero’s Verrines and their impact on ideas about cultural property.
J. Andrew Overman is the Harry M. Drake Distinguished Professor in the Humanities and Fine Arts in the Department of Classics at Macalester College, St. Paul, MN. He has directed archaeological excavations in northern Israel, as well as in the Black Sea region. He has published widely on the archaeology of Galilee, the Roman East, and the beginnings of Judaism and Christianity in the eastern Mediterranean.
Isabel Rodá is the Director of the ICAC (Catalan Institute of Classical Archaeology) and Professor of Archaeology of the UAB (Autonomous University of Barcelona). She has written on the ceramics of Hispania (Ceramicas exoticas y de imitacion en el poblado iberico de Sant Julia de Ramis, 1974) and authored and co-authored several corpora concerning Roman inscriptions on the peninsula.
David Gilman Romano , PhD, is the Karabots Professor of Greek Archaeology in the School of Anthropology at the University of Arizona. He began the Corinth Computer Project, (http://corinthcomputerproject.org) in 1987 as a long-term study of the urban and rural landscape of the Roman colony of Corinth. Since 2004 he has been Co-Director and Field Director of the Mt. Lykaion Excavation and Survey Project in Arcadia, Greece (http://lykaionexcavation.org). His publications include Mapping Augustan Rome (2002) in collaboration with Lothar Haselberger, The Catalogue of the Classical Collection of the Glencairn Museum (1999) with Irene Bald Romano and Athletics and Mathematics in Archaic Corinth: The Origins of the Greek Stadion (1993), as well as a series of publications on the city and landscape planning of the Roman colony of Corinth. Romano directs the Archaeological Mapping Lab (http://archaeologicalmappinglab.org).
Roman Roth teaches Classics at the University of Cape Town. His primary research interests concern the cultural history of ancient Italy, with a particular focus on the material and visual culture of the Republican period. He is the author of Styling Romanisation: Pottery and Society in Central Italy (2007), as well as several articles and book chapters, and also directs the current excavations on the site of ancient Capena (Provincial di Roma).
Rafael Scopacasa (PhD, University of Exeter) is a research fellow at the British School at Rome. His work focuses on combining written and material evidence to understand key historical developments in Italy from the Iron Age to the Roman conquest, most recently in his dissertation, “Identity as social practice in the funerary sites of central Apennine Italy (‘Samnium’), 6th–3rd century BC.”
Susan Kirkpatrick Smith is a biological anthropologist in the Department of Geography and Anthropology at Kennesaw State University in Kennesaw, Georgia. She has conducted skeletal analysis of human remains from the Bronze Age through the Roman period in Greece. Her areas of interest include warfare and social change and their effects on the body.
Tesse D. Stek is Golding Junior Research Fellow at Brasenose College, Oxford University. He is the author of Cult Places and Cultural Change in Republican Italy (2009) and conducts archaeological fieldwork in the south Italian region of Molise, ancient Samnium. This work is funded by the Netherlands Organization of Scientific Research (NWO).
David L. Stone is Assistant Professor of Classics at Florida State University. He is the co-editor of Mortuary Landscapes of North Africa (2007) and Leptiminus (Lamta). Report no. 3, the Field Survey, JRA Suppl. 87 (2011). He has also published several articles on epigraphy and landscape archaeology in North Africa.
Marlene Suano (PhD, University of London) is a lecturer in Archaeology and Ancient History at the University of São Paulo, Brazil. She is interested in using archaeological evidence to answer questions about cultural identity and cultural change in ancient Italy, especially that of the Samnite area. Her book, I vivi fra i loro morti: frequentazione rituale nella necropoli di Tornareccio (in press), explores cultural change in the Central Apennines.
Steven L. Tuck is Associate Professor in Classics and the History of Art at Miami University. His scholarship includes a dissertation on Roman Imperial harbor monuments and articles on the Tiber and its installations and the triumphal monuments in ports around the Roman world. He is also the author of a history of Roman art (forthcoming from Wiley-Blackwell).
Miguel John Versluys is Associate Professor of Classical Archaeology at Leiden University. His research focuses on cultural interaction in the Hellenistic-Roman Mediterranean and Near East. He is the author of Aegyptiaca Romana. Nilotic Scenes and the Roman Views of Egypt (2002) and the co-editor of two volumes of Isis studies: Nile into Tiber. Egypt in the Roman World (2007) and Isis on the Nile. Egyptian Gods in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt (2010). A monograph on Nemrud Dağ and late Hellenistic Commagene is forthcoming.
P. Gregory Warden, President of Franklin College (Lugano), formerly University Distinguished Professor of Art History and Associate Dean for Research and Academic Affairs at Southern Methodist University, has authored/co-authored five books as well as over 70 articles and reviews on areas ranging from Greek archaeology to Etruscan art, archaeology and ritual, and Roman architecture. Warden is the founder, Principal Investigator, and co-Director of the Mugello Valley Archaeological Project and excavations at Poggio Colla, an Etruscan settlement north-east of Florence, a joint mission of SMU, Franklin and Marshall College, and the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology. Warden is also the former editor of EtruscanStudies and a Trustee of the Etruscan Foundation, and has been elected to the Istituto di Studi Etruschi e Italici. In 2011 he was awarded the Stella della Solidarietà Italiana and the title of Cavaliere by the Republic of Italy.
R.J.A. Wilson is Professor of the Archaeology of the Roman Empire at the University of British Columbia and Director of the Centre for the Study of Ancient Sicily there. He has been Humboldt Fellow at the University of Bonn (1987–9), Visiting Professor at McMaster University (1998), Balsdon Fellow at the British School at Rome (2003) and Guest Scholar in Residence at the Getty Villa, Malibu (2012). His books include Guide to the Roman Remains in Britain (1975, 1980, 1988, 2002; 5th edn in preparation), Piazza Armerina (1982) and Sicily under the Roman Empire (1990).
Fikret K. Yegül is an architect and a Professor of the History of Art and Architecture at the University of California, Santa Barbara. A scholar of Roman architecture, he has been a member of the Harvard Sardis Excavations in Turkey and the Ohio State University Isthmia Excavations in Greece. Specializing in the baths and bathing culture of antiquity, Yegül is the author of articles and books on Roman architecture, notably Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity (1992, 1995) which received the Alice D. Hitchcock Award from the Society of Architectural Historians in 1994. His most recent book is Bathing in the Roman World (2010). He is working on a book on Roman architecture and urbanism.
Mantha Zarmakoupi received her MSt and DPhil in Classical Archaeology from Oxford University. Prior to this she studied Architecture at the National Technical University of Athens and gained a Master of Design Studies in History and Theory from Harvard University. Her research in archaeology is informed by her background in architectural practice, history and theory of architecture as well as digital visualizations. Her dissertation on the architecture of Roman luxury villas around the Bay of Naples is in press for Oxford University Press. She has also edited a volume on the Villa of the Papyri (2010), and is presently studying the urban growth of Late Hellenistic Delos, the “Quartier du Stade.”
Abbreviations of the names and works of ancient authors, as well as for collections of inscriptions, are as found in the Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd edn, 1996). Abbreviations of journal titles and modern works abbreviated by initial titles of books (e.g. NTDAR) are as found in the online abbreviations for the American Journal of Archaeology (www.ajaonline.org); if the journals are not listed there, the titles are spelled out in full. All dates are BCE, unless otherwise specified.
Roman Republican archaeology, while overshadowed by its larger sibling the archaeology of the Roman Empire, has a growing body of evidence that is changing the way that archaeologists, art historians, historians, classicists and anthropologists think about a culture that is nominally recorded by ancient historians. This book, which came about through the suggestion of Haze Humbert at Wiley-Blackwell, is intended to speak to those archaeologists, art historians, historians, classicists and anthropologists who are interested in the sixth through first centuries on the Italian Peninsula and in the empire of the Republic. The work of the archaeologist has changed dramatically in the last 30 years, due to the introduction of new technologies, the explosion of information available (from satellite photos to DNA analysis), and the declining interest of organizations in funding “big digs.” Archaeologists have thus expanded the types of questions they ask, the manner in which they can answer old and ask new questions, and the fora in which they publish. One example of how archaeological research has changed is the interpretation of a site through interdisciplinary teams. Thus, the time for such a Companion is now, as scholars in differing disciplines publishing in a range of journals and presses develop the picture of the Republic. I have asked a wide variety of scholars, from anthropologists to ancient historians to field archaeologists, to help illuminate broad swaths of this field, allowing readers to see what particular disciplines are contemplating. By giving both a guide to further reading and a detailed bibliography, the reader can move into specialized studies on a particular topic of interest. I have also asked both more established authors and younger authors to contribute, to benefit from their combined wisdom and new thinking. The Roman world, by the end of the Republican period, was an intensely pan-Mediterranean one and in order to bring a fuller discussion of these cultures which comprised the Republic, I have turned to scholars in North America, the United Kingdom, Europe, Africa and New Zealand, and have had contributions from French, German, Italian and Spanish translated for the English-speaking audience of the Companion – though the reference list will quickly alert the reader to the global nature of this study.