Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright page
Preface
Acknowledgements
Abbreviations
Pictorial Review
Reduction Technology
Carbon Technology
Coal Tar Pitch
Coke Calcination
Green Anode and Cathode Preparation
Anode Baking
Anode Developments
Alumina/Bauxite
Alumina
Bauxite
Cast Shop Technology
Melting
Metal Treatment
Direct Chill Casting
Electromagnetic Casting
Continuous Casting
Reclamation and Recycling
Safety
Environmental Control
Emission control systems at various locations from 1962 to 1982. Air Industrie.
Invited Papers
Charles Martin Hall The Young Man, His Mentor, and His Metal
Introduction
Professor and Student
Curricular and Extracurricular Studies
Electrolysis Experiments
Success
Commercialization
Recognition
The Person
References
Paul Héroult The Man Behind the Invention
History of Electrical Energy Consumption by Hall-Héroult Cells
Early History
Electrolyte Composition
Heat Balance
Electromagnetic Problems
Control
Summary
Evolution of Electrolytes for Hall-Héroult Cells
Baths of the Beginning
Characterization of Bath
More Recent Industrial Baths
References
Gaining That Extra 2 Percent Current Efficiency
Introduction
Better Understanding
Mass Transfer Control
Process Control & Operating Strategy
Cell Design
Advanced Through Communication
Future Utilization of Knowledge
Acknowledgements
References
Carbon Electrodes in the Hall-Héroult Cell: A Century of Progress
Abstract
Introduction
Carbon Technology Developments Prior To The Year 1886
Carbon Electrodes In The Early Years Of Commercialization Of The Hall-Héroult Process
State Of The Art And Developments In Manufactured Carbon Technology In The Late Nineteenth And Early Twentieth Centuries
A History Of Prebaked Anode Cell Development At One Smelter
Development Of The Soderberg Anode
Vibration Formed Anodes
Cathode Developments
Carbon Characterization Tests
State Of The Art Of Hall-Héroult Cell Electrode Technology
“The Proof Is In The Pudding”
Acknowledgments
References
Outlook of the Bayer Process
Plant Unit Sizes
Plant Capacities
Productivity
Plant Location
Quality
Energy
Equipment
Conclusions
Acknowledgement
Cast Shop Technology and Reclamation: 100 Years of Progress
Melting And Casting Process Ingot — Then And Now
Some Important Developments On The Way To The 1980’s
References
Fluoride Control in the Aluminum Industry 100 Years of Technology
References
Environmental Control in our Industry An Historical Overview
Introduction
Bayer Process Waste (Red Mud)
Calciners For The Production of Alumina
Carbonaceous Fumes
Potlining
Aluminum Remelting And Chlorine Fluxing
Explosions
Heat And Physical Stress
Noise
Disease And Damage To Vegetation
Ackowledgements
Appendix A Treating Cell Room Gaseous Effluent
References
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Preface
One hundred years ago, two young men, oceans apart, independently devised a new method of making aluminum. This discovery in 1886 by Charles M. Hall in the United States and Paul T. Héroult in France gave the world the shiny light metal at costs that made it competitive in the market place.
The Light Metals Committee of The Metallurgical Society is proud to celebrate the anniversary of this important event by publishing Volume I of Light Metals 1986 as a Centennial Edition.
This special edition has two parts: a pictorial section and a series of invited papers. The objective is to highlight with pictures and text the important developments in the past one hundred years in the process metallurgy of aluminum. This includes the electrolytic method of making aluminum, emission and waste control measures in plant operations, manufacture of carbon electrodes, methods of processing bauxite and alumina, technology for melting and casting process ingots and processes for reclamation and recycling.
This collection shows “how it was’ and “how it is now”, during the years in which the infant aluminum industry grew into a giant. Many companies from all over the world opened their archives to provide a large collection of photos from which to make selections. The Russians were invited, but, regrettably, did not respond.
Wherever possible, photographs were chosen which show people at work. This is fitting because this Centennial Edition is a tribute, not only to Hall and Héroult, but to all the men and women who have made contributions to the Aluminum Industry.
In addition to material from industry, we have drawn heavily upon the literature for drawings and photographs to provide a visual record of the changing nature and scale of the numerous processes involved in making aluminum and aluminum process ingots.
An important part of this Hall-Héroult Centennial volume is a series of papers by experts in their fields. A pair of human interest reports tell us about the personal lives of Charles Hall and Paul Héroult at the time of their discovery. These reports are followed by papers describing developments in technology, equipment, and practice in the various areas of aluminum process metallurgy during the past one hundred years.
Ronald E. Miller,
Chairman
Light Metals Committee
Acknowledgements
This Pictorial Review is the result of efforts of many individuals and companies. Without their willingness to open their files and send photos, this Review could not have been assembled.
We are indebted to the following companies: Air Industrie, Alcan, Alcoa, Almeq, Alusuisse, Aluminum Association, Arco Metals, ASV, British Alcan, Consolidated Aluminum Company (Conalco), Commonwealth Aluminum Company (Comalco), Elkem, Granges Aluminum, Hazelett, Hunter Engineering, Intalco, Japan Aluminum Federation, Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical Corporation (KACC), KBI (Cabot Corporation), Loma Machine, Mitsui Aluminum, National Southwire Aluminum, Norsk Viftefabrikk (Flakt), Pechiney, Properzi International, Pyrotek, Reynolds Metals Company, Showa Aluminum K.K., Sumitomo Aluminum, Union Carbide (Linde Division), VAW, Wagstaff Engineering.
I will not list, but hereby, thank all contributors. A special acknowledgement is due to: Kjell Nielson (consultant); W.O. Stauffer (consultant); J. Peter McGeer, G.G.Robertson (Alcan); Vergi Sapp, Ronald E. Miller, Gordon Bell (Alcoa); Ulrich Mannweiler (Alusuisse); Andreas Anderson (ASV); David Williams, H. McDonald (Conalco); Gunnar Sem (Elkem); T. Pritchard, H.E. Miller, W. Kramer, B.J. Foster, R. Zabreznik (KACC); F.R. Mollard (KBI); A. Nussbaum (Loma Machine); N. Bjune (Mosal); E. Keul (Norsk Viftefabrikk); Prof. N. Craig (Oberlin College); Christian Bickert (Pechiney); A. Roy (Pyrotek); CM. McMinn, S. Levy, J. Creel (Reynolds Metals); T. Matshushima (Showa); K. Yamada (Sumitomo); G. Winkhaus (VAW); W. Wagstaff (Wagstaff Engineering).
Also, special appreciation and thanks to Elizabeth Luzar, Gayle Geddes and the TMS staff, and particularly to my wife.
Thanks to Interscience Publishers (Division of John Wiley & Sons), Aluminium Verlag, Journal of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, and The Metallurgical Society for permission to use materials from their publications.
A special thanks is extended to Dr. Subodh K. Das of Arco Metals for soliciting the invited papers, and to each invited author who contributed to this volume: P. Atkins, D. Belitskus, C. Bickert, N. Craig, R. Friederich, W. Haupin, J. P. McGeer, N. Oberg, W. Peterson, N. Richards, B. Welch.
W.S. Peterson
R.E. Miller
Abbreviations
Abbreviations used in the captions to the photos and figures include:
CWPB | center work prebake pot |
DC | direct chill |
EM | electromagnetic |
HDC | horizontal direct chill |
HSS | horizontal stud Soderberg |
kA | kilo amperes |
MW | mega watts |
PBA | prebake anode |
SWPB | side work prebake pot |
VSS | vertical stud Soderberg |
The history of Hall’s discovery and development of the electrolytic process for refining aluminum is described. It begins in the fall of 1880 when two young men met on the campus of Oberlin College. Charles M. Hall was a local youth who was self-educated in science and eager to make his mark as an inventor. Professor Frank F. Jewett was an exceptionally well-educated chemist and mineralogist who had studied in Germany and taught in Japan. This account includes a reconstruction of the chemistry Hall explored until he achieved the successful experiment on February 23, 1886. It outlines the steps in the commercialization of the process, of which the production of the first ingot of aluminum metal in Pittsburgh on Thanksgiving Day 1888 was the highlight. Hall’s personal qualities, which were so different from those of his French counterpart, Paul Héroult, are brought out.