Figure 3.1 China's age dependency ratios: young and old

Figure 3.2 Composition of gross industry output and current account surplus

Figure 3.3 China's inflation and exchange rate record

Figure 3.4 Real effective exchange rates, 2010 = 100

Figure 4.1 Top ten bond markets in the world, 2014

Figure 4.2 Top ten government-bond markets in the world, 2014

Figure 4.3 Main euro sovereign-bond markets, 2014

Figure 4.4 Ten-year sovereign-bond yield spreads over the bund (bps)

Figure 4.5 Top ten government-bond markets: 2014 vs 2020 (USD bn)

Figure 5.1 Top ten exchanges and stock markets in the world (by 2014 market capitalization, USD trn)

Figure 5.2 Stock markets by market cap to GDP and global share, 2014

Figure 5.3 Quotas outstanding for QFII, RQFII and QDII (USD bn)

Figure 5.4 Stock index and PE of different stock market boards

Figure 6.1 Top ten most-traded currencies globally, 2013

Figure 6.2 Top ten traded emerging-market currencies

Figure 6.3 China's shares of world total

Figure 6.4 Ratio of foreign-exchange turnover to trade and GDP

Figure 6.5 Top ten traded currencies (daily turnover, USD bn)

Figure 7.1 SWIFT global payment flow by share: top ten currencies

Figure 7.2 RMB as a trade finance currency (October 2013)

Figure 7.3 CNH bond issuance (2007–2014) (RMB bn)

Figure 7.4 RMB trade settlements

Figure 7.5 Global RMB SWIFT payments (2012–2014) (%)

Figure 7.6 Channels of interactions onshore and offshore

Figure 7.7 Daily forward rates and onshore/offshore CGB yields

Figure 8.1 Samsung cash flow using USD as its treasury currency in China

Figure 8.2 Samsung treasury management using RMB settlement netting service

Figure 8.3 Changhong case: an importer's RMB LC + offshore USD loan

Figure 8.4 FX spot rate spread between onshore and offshore markets

Table 3.1 Three GDP-growth scenarios (2015–2020 and 2021–2030)

Table 3.2 Selected capital market openings

Table 3.3 Contributions to changes in REER from NEER and CPI by percentage

Table 4.1 Composition of domestic financing (percentage of total domestic financing, December 2013)

Table 4.2 Chinese domestic bond market by issuer (RMB bn, year-end)

Table 4.3 Chinese bond market by investor (RMB bn, year-end)

Table 4.4 Turnover ratio of major government-bond markets

Table 4.5 A possible scheme to consolidate public-sector liabilities in China

Table 4.6 Foreign holdings of domestic government bonds (percentage of total outstanding, year-end)

Table 4.7 Projections of the Chinese bond market and foreign holdings, 2020 (RMB billion (USD billion), year-end)

Table 4.8 Comparison of CGB, China's policy-bank bond, UST and US MBS (amount outstanding, USD bn, year-end)

Table 5.1 Key indicators for the SSE and SZSE (2004–2014) (RMB bn)

Table 5.2 China's stock market: key indicators (2004–2014)

Table 5.3 Indicators for the SME and ChiNext boards at SZSE

Table 5.4 Investor profile at SSE (as a share of SSE total, 2013)

Table 5.5 Stock market turnover in China (2004–2014)

Table 5.6 The Chinese banking sector by assets (2005–2014)

Table 5.7 Deposits and loans of domestic and foreign banks in China

Table 5.8 Domestic and foreign banking deposits in Japan

Table 6.1 Emerging-market currency OTC FX turnover, by currency

Table 6.2 Daily FX turnover of top ten currencies

Table 6.3 OTC FX market turnover in emerging markets, by instrument

Table 6.4 Offshore trading of emerging-market currencies

Table 6.5 RMB FX turnover by market (average daily turnover, April 2013)

Table 6.6 RMB forwards: deliverables vs non-deliverables, 2013 (USD mn, daily turnover)

Table 7.1 RMB cross-border payments (2014) (RMB bn)

Table 7.2 Share of RMB cross-border settlements (%)

Table 7.3 RMB offshore centers' clearing banks and RQFII programs (RMB bn)

Table 7.4 Shares of RMB deposits in major Asian offshore centers (percentage of the total of four markets)

Table 7.5 Imports and exports of China to and from other regions

Table 9.1 Reserve currencies (as a share of total allocated reserves, %)

Table 9.2 China's bilateral local currency swap agreements

Table A.1 Forecast China RMB financial statistics and forecasts by other institutions (for reference)

At a time when effective management of international monetary affairs is fundamental to global economic recovery, the rapid emergence of a new major currency – China's internationalizing renminbi (RMB) – is a transformative event of global significance.

This book analyzes the drivers, progress and likely trajectory of the RMB internationalization. It also looks at what the dawning of the RMB era potentially means for the global financial system, international business and for supporting financial services and products. Overwhelmingly, we see opportunities more than threats.

In tackling this challenging subject Fung Global Institute has, I believe, gone deeper and wider than previous studies on this subject. We have addressed it objectively with a balanced view of different interests and of the welfare of the global financial system as a whole.

True to Fung Global Institute's mission to provide Asian perspectives on global issues, we have taken as our starting point the inner workings and changing needs of China's economy. As China manages its complex transition to a growth model emphasizing domestic consumption and services over investment and export manufacturing, these needs are necessarily expressing themselves through domestic financial reform, with RMB internationalization as an important focal point. We look deeply into these domestic reasons behind the RMB's arrival on the global stage.

A specific example of domestic reform is the Chinese bond markets. We look in detail at how China needs to integrate its bond markets, expand their use and gradually open them to the world, and then how these domestic imperatives support the internationalization of the currency. We also examine China's expanding global network, with Hong Kong as the cornerstone of offshore settlement centers for RMB trade.

We have gone wider by setting the rise of the RMB in a historical context. A century ago, the US dollar overtook sterling in little over a decade to become the leading international currency. While the dollar looks set to remain the principal reserve currency of the world for years to come, its own historical journey is a reminder of how rapidly currencies rise (and fall). In this report, we foresee the RMB possibly challenging in little more than a decade the euro's role as the world's second most important reserve currency. China has already surpassed the euro as a trade-settlement currency.

For some, the speed of this anticipated reordering is surprising, even unsettling. But global businesses have quickly discovered that they can save costs and raise profits by using the internationalized RMB. Provision by the Chinese government of the necessary hard and soft infrastructure has made internationalization of the RMB possible; business profits are making it successful. We have studies of companies in this book illustrating how the RMB's rise is a major opportunity for business to benefit from dealing in RMB.

Having said that, there are inevitable uncertainties as to how fast China can press ahead with domestic economic transformation and RMB internationalization. With these in mind, we offer alternative policy scenarios outlining different outcomes.

Just as the internationalization of the RMB is a moving target, we present this book as a work in progress. Our hope is that it will stimulate debate from economists and professionals in the financial services and industry generally.

Under the project leadership of William Overholt, the authors of this book have taken on one of the hottest topics in international finance with new depth and freshness. I look forward to seeing more such reports from the Asia Global Institute, which, from July 1, 2015, will carry forward the Fung Global Institute's mission to address major global economic issues from Asian perspectives.

Victor K. Fung Chairman, Fung Global Institute June 2015

This book is the product of a large collective effort. HSBC provided the funding for much of the research, after which we undertook further research and a colloquium with The Fung Global Institute endowment funds. We are profoundly grateful to HSBC for its support. HSBC gave us complete independence and freedom in conducting the research and publishing this book. The content of this book (including our views) has not been endorsed by HSBC and does not necessarily reflect the views of HSBC. Accordingly, we are solely responsible for the content, any of our views and any possible errors.

William Overholt organized the project, wrote much of several chapters (particularly the first three and the last three) and edited the overall book. Guonan Ma wrote much of several chapters and helped edit and reshape the entire book. Many forecasts in the book derive from Cheung Kwok Law's econometric analysis. In the interest of readability, we have not included regression analyses and extensive methodological commentary in the book.

A broader team made important contributions. Dominic Meagher provided much of the analysis of the history of monetary system transitions. Julia Leung provided the principal input, including decisive case studies, on why business finds RMB-based transactions profitable. Chris Jeffery's verbal comments and consulting paper provided much of our understanding of reserve currency issues. Geng Xiao organized panels at conferences that gave us important insights into Chinese thinking. Mingkang Liu's guidance throughout the project provided indispensable insights and wisdom.

Jodie Hu, Warren Lu, Zhu Yan, Sai Yau and especially Wang Yao provided research support throughout the project.

Andrew Keenan's editing helped make the book more readable for a non-specialist audience.

We held two colloquia on renminbi internationalization to appropriate as many ideas from smart people as possible and to get reactions to drafts of our work. Experts at the first colloquium, on December 1, 2014, in Hong Kong, included Vina Cheung, Victor K. Fung, Montgomery Ho, Haizhou Huang, Chris Jeffery, C.K. Law, Ka Chai Leong, Julia Leung, Mingkang Liu, Guonan Ma, Paul Malpass, Pamela Mar, Dominic Meagher, Kumiko Okazaki, William Overholt, Andrew Sheng, Michael Spence, Angus Tsang, Kai Man Wong and Geng Xiao.

Experts at the second colloquium, on June 7, 2015, in Hong Kong, included Robert Aliber, Suman Bery, John Burns, William Chan, Ka Mun Chang, Richard Cooper, Steven Davis, M. Taylor Fravel, Victor K. Fung, Andy Haldane, Akinari Horii, Fred Hu, Takatoshi Ito, C.K. Law, Julia Leung, Mingkang Liu, Patrick Low, Guonan Ma, Chung-In Moon, Benjamin Mok, William Overholt, T.V. Mohandas Pai, Sebastian Paredes, Dwight Perkins, Michael Spence, Angus Tsang, Mark Tucker, Ezra Vogel, Kai Man Wong, Helen Wong, Chenggang Xu and Jianzhang Zhuang.

We are deeply indebted to these thought leaders. With so many illustrious scholars, regulators and executives on tap, we have no excuse for whatever we have missed and for any mistaken conclusions drawn from among the different and sometimes conflicting perspectives. Errors of fact and analysis are solely our own.

William Overholt is President of the Fung Global Institute in Hong Kong and Senior Fellow at Harvard University's Asia Center. Dr Overholt is the author of six books, most notably Asia, America and the Transformation of Geopolitics (2008) and The Rise of China (1993). Previously he was Director, Center for Asia Pacific Policy at RAND Corporation. For 21 years he headed investment bank research teams, serving as Managing Director and Head of Research at Bankers Trust in Hong Kong, Managing Director of Research for BankBoston's regional headquarters in Singapore and Head of Asia Strategy and Economics for Nomura in Hong Kong. He also spent eight years at Hudson Institute, where he managed research projects for the Department of Defense, National Security Council, NASA and others, and was director of a business consulting subsidiary. He received his B.A. from Harvard and his M.Phil. and Ph.D. from Yale.

Guonan Ma is a Senior Fellow at Fung Global Institute and a non-resident Fellow of Bruegel, the Belgian think tank. He was Senior Economist at the Bank for International Settlements from 2001 to 2014. A veteran investment bank economist, with experience at Merrill Lynch Asia, Salomon Smith Barney, Bankers Trust and Peregrine Securities, he is one of the most widely published financial economists in Asia and also a consultant to major central banks. He holds a B.A. from Peking University and a Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh, and has served as a Lecturer of Economics at Peking University and as a Lecturer and Senior Fellow in Economics at the Australian National University.

Cheung Kwok Law is a Senior Researcher at Fung Global Institute and co-author of a forthcoming book analyzing the development of a successful Chinese city, Foshan. He has a distinguished career as an economist, including roles as Senior Economist for the Hong Kong government, Senior Economist for HSBC, Director of Regional Research for Bankers Trust Securities, Research Director at South China Brokerage and Research Director of the Hong Kong Policy Research Institute. He has also had a career in public service, including Member of Hong Kong's Legislative Council 1995–1998 and Member of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference for two decades, among many others. He has lectured at Hong Kong Baptist University and the Chinese University of Hong Kong and served as Administrative Director of Graduate Programs at the Chinese University's Faculty of Business. He holds a B.A. from the Chinese University, an M.A. from Thammasat University (Thailand) and a Ph.D. from the University of California, Los Angeles.