Copyright © 1989, 1999, 2013 by the Christine Ammer 1992 Trust
ISBN: 9781626759664
An astonishing number of words and expressions have entered our language through warfare and other hostilities. Some of them, such as bazooka, G.I., and jeep, are neologisms, pure inventions. Others are words whose original military meaning has been extended to an altogether different enterprise, such as an advertising campaign, mountain climber's bivouac, or football team's pep rally. Still others have so changed that their original military significance has been quite forgotten – avant-garde, deadline, magazine, pioneer, wardrobe.
Since publication of the first edition of this book, various conflicts around the world have given us new terms -- ethnic cleansing, Gulf War syndrome, hummer. The more than 1,200 terms in this revised and augmented third edition are arranged alphabetically.
The author is deeply indebted to the many eminent etymologists, linguists, and lexicographers who collectively represent centuries of labor in tracing the origins of the English language. This book is but a modest compilation of the results of their fine scholarship.
Grateful acknowledgment also is made to the many friends and acquaintances who have helped, pointing out terms and sources and verifying current usages. Their assistance has been of immense value. Special thanks are due to the late World War II aviation ace Robert Curtis, and that knowledgeable military history buff, the late Dean Ammer.
A defensive barricade consisting of piled up stakes and trees with their branches facing outward to repel or slow down attackers. The name is derived from the French abbatis for an artificial obstacle made of felled trees.
To reverse a decision. During the American Civil War, "Right about face!" was a military command to turn 180 degrees at attention. It was -- and still is, in the military -- performed in a specific way, with the ball of the right foot placed behind the heel of the left foot, which must then pivot 180 degrees to the right (in clockwise direction). The command is often shortened to "About face!" (In Britain the command for the identical maneuver is "About turn!") At some time during succeeding decades the military command came to mean simply turning around, and then it acquired the figurative sense of changing a decision or one's opinion or attitude.
Open, honest, or fair. The term refers to the pirates who preyed on merchant shipping. They often concealed their strength by hiding crews and arms below the boards, that is, below decks. The current term conveys the opposite.
An ironic euphemism for not according to plan. It dates from British communiqués in World War I, where it would be used to excuse a setback, such as a forced retreat. Its use continued into World War II, where it was joined by such phrases as withdraw to a prepared and strategic advance to the rear. Thereafter it entered the world of private enterprise and is still used to describe business setbacks, sports defeats, and the like.
A hero of the air war during World War I. At first the term meant simply a fine flier. In 1916, however, during the seemingly endless and terrible Battle of Verdun, the French, eager to divert public attention from the carnage on the ground, decided to single out fliers who had downed at least five enemy planes. Such a pilot was officially called an as, French for "ace," and the number of his victories was published in the French press. Today the term still means an outstanding flier, as well as an excellent performer in any field. America's ace of aces, the one with the most victories, was Eddie Rickenbacker, a race car driver who took to the air like the proverbial duck to water. Since he only began flying in combat in 1917, his record of 26 downed enemy planes seems sparse beside the eighty victories of the famed Red Baron , Germany's legendary Manfred von Richthofen, whose nickname was derived from the red color scheme of his plane.
"Ireland, that vulnerable heel of the British Achilles."
-- Samuel Taylor Coleridge, 1810
A vulnerable spot or weak area in a person, group, or nation. According to Greek legend, Thetis took her baby son, Achilles, by the foot and dipped him into the River Styx in order to make him immortal, but the heel by which she held him remained dry. Her son grew up to become the greatest of Greek warriors in the Trojan War. He killed Troy's mighty Hector but was himself slain by Paris, who shot a fatal arrow into his heel. The same story accounts for the name of the Achilles tendon, which joins the calf muscles to the heel bone and is frequently injured by athletes.
Another story about Achilles accounts for the botanical name of a genus of plants of the daisy family, Achillea, which includes the common yarrow (Achillea millefolium). On their way to Troy the Greeks landed in Mysia and were opposed by Hector's son, Telephus. The god Dionysus caused Telephus to stumble, whereupon Achilles wounded him with his spear. Telephus appealed to the oracle and was told that Achilles would heal his wound. Telephus then promised Achilles he would lead him to Troy in return for his help. Agreeing, Achilles scraped some rust from his spear and from these filings sprang the yarrow plant, today also called milfoil or sneezewort, which was applied to the wound and healed it. Actually, the healing properties of yarrow have been valued for centuries, infusions (teas) made from it having been used for such diverse maladies as fevers, headache, diarrhea, palpitations, and excessive menstrual bleeding. It also works as an insect repellent. Yarrow once was regarded as one of the "witch herbs," and carrying it at weddings supposedly guaranteed seven years of married bliss.
Slang for anti-aircraft fire. Originated by the British, the term came from the British alphabet code used in radio communications, where "ack" stood for the letter A. The British used their own code for the first three years of World War II but then switched to the American system, with Able (A), Baker (B), etc.
A strong fortified place. The name comes from the Greek acro, for high, and polis, for city. By 800 B.C., the end of the Homeric Age, small village communities began to combine into larger units called city-states. To protect them, an acropolis was often built on high ground. In 480 B.C. the great Acropolis of Athens was destroyed by the Persians, but the name continued to be used both literally and figuratively. In 1662 Sir Thomas More wrote, "As if Nature kept garrison in this Acropolis of Man's body."
"If blood be the price of admiralty, Lord
God, we ha'paid in full."
-- Rudyard Kipling, The Song of the Dead (1889)
The commander of a naval fleet. The English word comes from the Arabic amir, meaning commander or lord, used with the article al, for "of." Thus in Arabic amir-al-bahr means commander of the sea and amir-al-ma commander of the waters. British seamen misunderstood the exact sounds and meanings, taking amir-al to be a title, and by the end of the twelfth century it became the word admiral. In the United States Navy admiral is the highest rank, but there are several grades, ranging from fleet admiral down through admiral, vice-admiral, and rear admiral. The odd name for the lowest grade comes from the British navy, where the rear admiral commanded the rear, or hindmost, squadron. Among medical students rear admiral is jocular slang for the specialist in proctology.
In British terminology the related word admiralty, which dates from the fourteenth century, is still applied to numerous objects and affairs connected with the sea -- for example, admiralty law and admiralty cloth (melton cloth, used for Navy uniforms). In the United States it has been largely replaced by maritime in nonmilitary lingo -- for example, maritime law, which governs not only the Navy but also merchant seamen and vessels.
A tedious experience, a boring undertaking. This term was army slang during the Civil War, and probably alluded to something that impedes progress.
Protection or patronage. In Greek mythology the aegia (or aigis) was the protective shield of the god Zeus, covered with goatskin (in Greek, aix or aigos) and picturing the head of a Gorgon (serpent). In the seventeenth century aegis became an English word meaning protection, and by extension, support or sponsorship. Today, therefore, one might speak of a fund-raising drive for a new athletic field that is held under the aegis of the town's Rotary Club.
A powerful herbicide and defoliant. In the late 1960s U.S. Air Force fliers dumped millions of gallons of this chemical over the thick jungles of war-ravaged South Vietnam. Rained down on more than five million acres, it was intended to strip the land of crops and concealing jungle. Apart from causing widespread devastation, Agent Orange gave rise to a bitter controversy because it contains dioxide, which causes cancer in laboratory animals. After the war thousands of American Vietnam veterans pressed the U.S. government to compensate for injury and illness believed to be caused by Agent Orange. Actually, four herbicides were used in these attacks: Agent Blue, Agent Purple, Agent White, and Agent Orange. They were named for the colored code stripe on each of their containers. Agent Orange, however, was the most toxic, and therefore the one most people remember.
Also, aerodrome. World War I names for a landing field for airplanes. The ending -drome meant a running course. Today airfield and airport have largely replaced these names.
The transport of people or supplies by air during an emergency. The term originated during World War II, when for the first time aircraft were widely used on both the European and Pacific fronts to transport troops and equipment. After the war, when the occupation zones of Germany were so arranged that the city of Berlin was surrounded by Russian-occupied territory, the Soviet Union in June, 1948, imposed an embargo on all land transport to the city. In order to supply the British and American zones within the city itself, the United States organized an airlift that lasted until May 12, 1949. During these months of what was called the Berlin airlift, a total of 195,530 flights transported 1,414,000 tons of food, fuel, and other needed supplies. Since then, there have been numerous airlifts to victims of natural disasters, such as floods and avalanches, who are cut off from normal routes of transport, but to date there has been no prolonged operation on such a large scale.
An attack on an enemy position by a plane or helicopter. The term dates from the Korean War, the first conflict in which there was widespread use of aircraft.
"Love sounds the alarm, and Fear is a flying."
John Gay, Acis and Galatea (1732)
A warning sound of impending danger; also, the fear caused by such danger. The word comes from the Italian expression all'armi. Italians, too, combined the two words into one, allarme, meaning both an alert and the disturbed feelings it may cause. The associations with bellicosity were gone long before the invention of the mechanical alarm, which roused diarist Samuel Pepys from sleep as long ago as the morning of July 16, 1665. (See also false alarm.)
Wide awake, on guard. This word, which today most often describes a vigilant state of mind, originally came from the Italian all'erta, meaning on the watchtower and referring to military sentries. During World War II it briefly reacquired its military connotations in the air-raid alert, sounded by sirens warning of the approach of enemy aircraft. After the war, however, its peaceful meanings again took precedence.
A signal given when a bombing raid had ended. Dating from World War I, the term appeared in a 1917 article in the London Times, which announced that in the future the all-clear signal at the end of an air raid would be announced by bugle calls. One cannot help but wonder how long that directive remained in place.
Originally a response to military roll call. It actually was "all present or accounted for," meaning everyone was either in formation or had a previously approved excuse. Currently the term is redundant; if one is present, one is accounted for. It persisted nevertheless, both in the military and eventually in civilian vocabulary, where it may be applied to people or things. For example, "Are all the board members here?"—"All present and accounted for." Or, "Do you have enough two-by-fours for the job?"—"All present and accounted for."
"All quiet along the Potomac tonight,
No sound save the rush of the river,
While soft falls the dew on the face
of the dead
The picket's off duty forever."
--- Ethel Lynn Beers, The Picket Guard (1861)
All is peaceful for the time being. The phrase "all quiet along the Potomac" dates from the American Civil War, probably originating in dispatches sent by George B. McClellan while commanding the Army of the Potomac from 1861 to 1862. For a period of several months, the river separated the Confederate and Union troops within shooting distance, but virtually no action took place. The dispatches infuriated northerners who wanted to see action, and the expression became an ironic catch phrase. It was quoted in Mrs. Beers's poem (see above), published in Harper's Weekly on September 30, 1861, which pungently commented on the official bulletins in another line, "Not an officer lost, only one of the men." The poem was set to music by John Hill Hewitt, and the song "All Quiet along the Potomac Tonight," published in 1864, became quite popular.
The expression persisted for several decades but was probably obsolete by 1900 or so. However, a similar situation arose on the Western front during World War I, and German military communiqués began to repeat the phrase, Im Westen nichts Neues (nothing new in the West), referring to the long-standing stalemate. At the same time, Allied communiqués described it as "all's quiet on the Western front." Now it was not the public who derided the expression, but the soldiers in the trenches, who regarded their situation as anything but serene. The life of the catch phrase was lengthened by Erich Maria Remarque's war novel, Im Westen Nichts Neues, translated into English by A. H. Wheen as All Quiet on the Western Front and published in the same year as in Germany, 1929.
There is no definitive connection between the nineteenth- and twentieth-century expressions, but lexicographer Eric Partridge believed that the World War I version derived from "all quiet on the Shipka Pass," a phrase current in 1915 and prompted by some bitter cartoons of a Russian soldier being buried in falling snow during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, which saw particularly bloody fighting in this high Balkan mountain pass.
"Old Meg was brave as Margaret Queen
And tall as Amazon."
-- John Keats, Meg Merrilies
A tall, strong, belligerent woman. The name comes from a tribe of women warriors in Asia Minor who were described by the ancient Greeks. Allegedly they would burn off their right breast in order to draw a bow better. The legendary Greek hero Achilles fought and killed Penthesila, Queen of the Amazons, a subject often depicted by Greek sculptors, and the Athenian hero Theseus routed the Amazons for the last time, thereby making Athens impregnable to its enemies. Theseus also had a son by one of the Amazons (either Hippolyta or Antiope -- accounts differ), who was named Hippolytus. Among Hercules's twelve labors was stealing the girdle of the Amazon queen, Hippolyta, whom he had to kill in order to do so. According to a colorful account by the Greek historian Herodotus, the Greeks defeated the Amazons in battle, took many of them captive, and sailed away with them. The Amazons then turned on their captors and killed them, but they did not know how to handle boats, so they drifted into Scythian territory. The Scythians at first took them to be men and fought them, but when they discovered their error they tried to get children by them. Scythians and Amazons lived together for a time, but when the Scythians tried to make the arrangement permanent, the Amazons refused to exchange their hunting and riding lifestyle for that of conventional wives, and eventually they parted peacefully.
The great Amazon River of South America was so named by early explorers who believed that some of the native women they saw there resembled the Amazons of Greek antiquity.
A specialized vehicle for transporting the ill and injured, usually to a hospital. The name comes from an invention of Napoleon Bonaparte's, l'ôpital ambulant (walking hospital), a light litter fitted with bandages and other first-aid equipment that served as a field hospital for wounded soldiers. In time the litters became more elaborate and mechanized, yielding at first to horse-drawn wagons and eventually to motorized ambulances. Today ambulances are standard civilian equipment in all the advanced countries of the world.
amicide See under friendly fire.
In the Vietnam War, slang for an infantryman carrying ammunition.
Originally, name for all military stores, and later specifically for ordnance. The word is a 16th-century corruption of munitions. It has long been used figuratively, as it is today. For example, "This preacher tends to use the Ten Commandments as ammunition to persuade parishioners to contribute more to the church."
A pardon. The word comes from the Greek word for forgetfulness, in English amnesia, and supposedly the first to grant amnesty was an ancient Greek general who, instead of punishing defeated enemies as was customary, decided to "forget" the hostilities and grant them a pardon. Today amnesty may be granted by a government, most often for political offenses, or by a court of law, usually for an entire class of offenders (an individual is usually said to be granted a pardon). The organization Amnesty International, which was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1977, works actively to free political prisoners and prevent violations of human rights throughout the world.
A great military expedition. The word comes from the title of the Greek officer Xenophon's account of a heroic Greek retreat in 401 B.C. from a large Persian force. Ten thousand who survived the attack retreated across 900 miles of mountains and deserts to the Black Sea, and from there more than six thousand returned to Greece. The noun anabasis, from Greek words for "going up" (from the interior to the sea) later came to be used figuratively for any great military expedition.
Annexation or junction. The word is a legitimate German one and had no special bellicose meaning until Nazi Germany seized neighboring Austria in 1938, and on March 11 of that year proclaimed the country to be part of Germany. There were many protests against this Anschluss but no other nation was prepared to act, and Hitler's argument that he was "liberating" his fellow countrymen in Austria carried the day. Ever since, the word Anschluss has carried the burden of that historical event, at least in English.
Before the American Civil War. The term comes straight from two Latin words meaning "before the war," and began to be so used in America almost as soon as the Civil War began. Unlike prewar and postwar, which, since they entered the language about 1905, have been used to mean before/after a variety of wars, in America antebellum firmly attached itself to the Civil War. In the South particularly one finds references to, for example, antebellum architecture (houses built before 1860), agriculture, and a variety of institutions and customs. In Britain, on the other hand, antebellum may refer to the Boer War or to either world war.
A Native American tribe renowned for their warlike behavior. In 1900 the French called Paris street gangs Apaches for their violence. In the 1920s this was further extended to Apache dancers, entertainers costumed as street gang members who performed a dance in which the man handled his woman partner violently, sometimes swinging her by her hair.
A small bomb that, when tripped, was boosted out of the ground to about the height of a man's waist before exploding. Introduced by the Germans in j1939, it operated on a hair-trigger mechanism and would spray a large area with shrapnel. The British called it bouncing Betty, and the mine itself has been used in armed conflicts ever since.
The act of soothing or pacifying. The word entered the language from the Old French apaiser via the Middle English apaisen or apesen in the fourteenth century and was a perfectly innocuous one -- blessed are the peacemakers, says the Bible -- until 1938 when, sincerely convinced that "in war there are no winners, there is nothing but suffering and ruin for those who are involved," British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain devoted himself to the cause of preventing armed conflict. In March of 1938 Hitler had taken Austria (see Anschluss) without interference from any foreign power, and the Nazis made no secret of their ambition to take over the largely German-speaking Sudetenland, which was part of Czechoslovakia. Chamberlain saw that a dispute over this area could develop into outright war. Further, was Hitler unreasonable? He said he only wished to help his countrymen in a foreign land. Helping him and avoiding war seemed to Chamberlain a worthy endeavor. Matters came to a head in September, 1938, with the Czechs calling out their troops to quell the Nazi-supported riots of Sudeten Germans. Chamberlain then took the dramatic step of offering to fly to Germany and talk to the German Chancellor. In the end, he made three separate trips to meet with Hitler, whose demands increased each time. The last meeting took place in Munich on September 29, 1938, when Hitler, Mussolini, French Premier Eduard Daladier, and Chamberlain convened and rapidly reached an agreement, the so-called Munich Pact. In exchange for Czech lands that Hitler proclaimed to be German, Hitler agreed never to declare war on Great Britain. It was this agreement that Chamberlain triumphantly waved on his return to England, saying he had "won peace in our time." Within six months, Hitler had broken virtually every promise he had made at Munich, and only then did Chamberlain realize that appeasing a dictator would just increase his appetite. He determined to resist further aggression, and in September, 1939, when the Nazis invaded Poland, he issued an ultimatum followed by a declaration of war. Despite Chamberlain's change of heart and policy, he is still identified with appeasement, and some people go further yet, contending that if Hitler had been stopped at the outset, World War II might never have taken place.
A fleet of ships, airplanes, or other vehicles. The word came into English in the sixteenth-century via Spanish from the Latin armata, meaning equipped with arms, and the most famous such fleet dates from the same period. In 1588 in Lisbon, at the height of the war between Spain and England, the Spaniards amassed a fleet of 130 vessels to invade England. The fleet came to be called the Invincible Armada, a name only slightly less ironic than its name in Spanish, La felicissima armada (the most fortunate fleet). The English first sighted the Spanish ships, which carried about 30,000 men, off their southwest shore on July 19, 1588, and during the night the English fleet under Lord Charles Howard slipped out into the English Channel. The clash between the two fleets began the next day and involved a running fight that churned the Channel for more than a week. The tall Spanish galleons tried to maneuver into grappling range so as to swarm onto the English ships and overwhelm their crews. The English fleet, consisting of lower and more maneuverable vessels, were better designed for raids and coastal defense. Neither had adequate supplies, but the English were slightly better off. For six days the Spaniards worked their way up the Channel, while the English moved according to the weather. Then some Spanish ships were lost, but not by gunfire. One suffered an internal explosion, another lost bowsprit and foremast in a collision, and a third drifted toward the French coast. On July 28 the Spaniards anchored off Calais, France, where they were to meet the Duke of Parma and his Army of Flanders to invade England. Parma, however, was not there. That night Lord Howard sent eight fire ships to throw firebrands at the Spaniards, who cut their cables and drifted off in confusion. Finally, weather blew the rest of their fleet into the North Sea, far from their rendezvous with the invasion army. Though few English ships were well enough provisioned to follow them, storms carried on their work, and the reefs of Scotland and Ireland claimed nearly half the remaining galleons. At last the Armada limped home, its numbers reduced by more than half, with an additional 4,000 men lost on the return voyage.
In current usage the word armada has no particular connotations of strength, meaning simply a large group of vehicles moving with a common purpose. (See also FLOTILLA.)
"We stand at Armageddon and we battle for the Lord."
-- Theodore Roosevelt, speech, June 17, 1912
A decisive battle. According to the Book of Revelation (16:14-16), Armageddon was the site of the final battle that would take place between good and evil on Judgment Day. The word comes from the Hebrew har megiddo, meaning Mountain of Megiddo, which in fact was the site of many real battles. Eventually Armageddon became a figure of speech for any major conflict between good and evil or any great decisive battle. Theodore Roosevelt was seeking the Presidential nomination at the Republican convention of 1912 when he declared that his fight for the nomination against William Howard Taft represented an Armageddon -- one that Roosevelt lost. He responded by assuming the leadership of a third party, the Progressive (Bull Moose) Party, thereby dividing the Republican vote and ensuring the victory of Democrat Woodrow Wilson.
Fully prepared to do battle, often meaning excessively so. The phrase brings to mind savage tribesmen -- or perhaps Marines or commandos -- stalking the enemy while holding a knife between their teeth. The phrase is actually very old. It appeared in a fourteenth-century Middle English discourse, Libeaus Disconus. In modern English, however, it did not surface again until the mid-nineteenth century, when Richard is credited to English industrialist and statesman Richard Ford wrote, in his Handbook for Travelers in Spain (1845), "Everybody in Spain travels armed to the teeth." It was then repeated by English industrialist and statesman Richard Cobden in a speech in 1849, in which he deplored the excessive use of the nation's resources for armaments, said, "Is there any reason why we should be armed to the teeth?" Today the expression is sometimes used figuratively -- for example, armed to the teeth against the bitter cold.
"Assassination has never changed the course of history."
-- Benjamin Disraeli, speech, May 1, 1865
A murderer, especially one of a prominent person, who acts either from moral conviction or for financial gain (hired assassin). The name comes from members of a fanatic Moslem sect, the Assassins, who in Arabic were called the hashishin (hashish users) because their acts of terrorism and murder, directed against the Crusaders, often were carried out under the influence of hashish. Active from about 1090 until 1273 throughout Iraq, Syria, and Persia, they were founded by Hassan ben Sabbah, who wanted to establish a single Islamic empire. They finally were overcome by the Mongols and Mamelukes, but their memory survives in the words assassin and assassinate, which came into English in the sixteenth century. Disraeli's statement in the House of Commons (quoted above), even if it had not followed by just two and one-half weeks the murder of Abraham Lincoln, is an arguable contention. After all, it was the assassination of the Archduke Ferdinand that set off World War I. Among the world leaders assassinated since then have been Pancho Villa, Leon Trotsky, Mohandas K. Gandhi, President Anastosio Somoza of Nicaragua, Prime Minister Hendrik Verwoerd of South Africa, King Faisal of Saudi Arabia, Indira Gandhi of India, and John F. Kennedy, the fourth U.S. President to die in this way (the others were Lincoln, Garfield, and McKinley).
Openly hostile, about to fight. The term has been used figuratively since the 19th century, as in "At the bridge table these couples were at daggers drawn."
As fast or as forcefully as possible. This term originally referred to the thrust of a lance or sword in combat, but has been used figuratively since approximately 1700. Thus, we might say "Production was running at full tilt in anticipation of the Christmas rush."
Prepared for immediate use. This term originally referred to having a firearm prepared to be raised and aimed or to fire. Today it is also used quite loosely, as in "Snow shovels at the ready, we were prepared to deal with the worst of storms."
The individuals or group in any field, but especially in the arts, known for their unorthodox, experimental works and approach. The term was adopted directly from the French term for "front guard" or "advance guard." It originally meant the advance guard of an army, also called the vanguard. Both words came into the English language in the late fifteenth century and began to be used in a nonmilitary sense about 1900.
Acronym for absent without official leave. According to the anonymous author of a particularly fanciful book of etymology, this term originated in the U.S. Army sometime before the Civil War, and during the war Confederate soldiers who were caught absenting themselves from military duties had to walk around camp bearing a sign saying A.W.O.L. Most reputable lexicographers agree that the acronym first came into use during World War I. During World War II it began to be used in civilian life for anyone absent from a job or other activities without proper explanation or permission, as, for example, a woman extending her maternity leave without authorization from her boss.
The name given to the alliance of two fascist states, Italy and Germany, in October, 1936, when Italy's dictator, Benito Mussolini, described them as "an axis around which all European states animated by the will to collaboration and peace can also assemble." A year later they were joined by Japan, and today historians sometimes also include Bulgaria, Hungary, and Rumania among the Axis countries.
Also, Axis snake, Axis water moccasin. Slang nicknames given to German submarines during the height of their attacks on Allied shipping.
An Englishwoman, Mildred Elizabeth Gillars, who made propaganda broadcasts for the Nazis during World War II. Her broadcasts were heard all over Europe, North Africa and the United States from 1940 to 1945. After the war she was eventually apprehended and tried for treason. She was convicted and served a prison sentence until 1961. She died in 1988. See also Baghdad Betty; Tokyo Rose.
An unmarried man. The term comes from the Old French bacheler, in turn from the words bas and chevalier, meaning below a knight or horseman. In medieval times a bachelor was • young man aspiring to knighthood but not old enough to own • horse or display his own banner. Most often he was a squire who served a knight as groom and man at arms. Wrote Chaucer in The Maunciple's Tale:
"He was the most lusty bachiler
In al this world and eek the beste archer."
By 1546, when John Heywood published his collection of proverbs, the word had its modern meaning: "Bachelers wives and maides children be well taught" -- a sardonic comment on the supposedly wise advice given by bachelors concerning marriage and by unmarried women concerning child-raising. In the 1890s a cartoon gave rise to a joke used for decades by comedians in vaudeville and other popular entertainment: "Why do married men live longer than bachelors? They don't, it just seems longer." Demographers, however, tell us that married men do in fact live longer, and divorced and widowed men in particular have a markedly shortened lifespan.
Anonymous workers who make important contributions in return for little or no credit or publicity. The term comes from a speech made in Great Britain during World War II by Lord Beaverbrook: "To whom must praise be given … to the boys in the backroom" -- that is, the scientists and technicians who contributed so much to developing scientific warfare and aiding war production. Ever since, the expression has been used for the unsung heroes and heroines whose labors enable scientific and technologic advances.
Hard pressed, making a last stand. The expression comes not only from warfare but from any kind of fighting. Literally backing up against a wall prevents an attack from the rear, but it also may mean that one has been forced back to a point from which one can retreat no farther. The term has been used since the sixteenth century but became famous near the end of World War I, when General Douglas Haig of Great Britain, according to the London Times (April 13, 1918), ordered his troops: "Every position must be held to the last man…. With our backs to the wall, and believing in the justice of our cause, each one of us must fight on to the end."
A name used by the British for a series of German air raids in April and May, 1942, that were allegedly directed against historic buildings to avenge Allied attacks on Cologne and Lubeck. The term alluded to the famous German Baedeker guidebooks that described and pinpointed historic buildings.
"Come, shepherd, let us make an honourable retreat,
though not with bag and baggage, yet with scrip and scrippage."
-- William Shakespeare, As You Like It
All of one's belongings. It originally (fifteenth century) meant all of an army's property, and to march away with bag and baggage signified not an ignominious retreat but the surrender of nothing of value to the enemy. Touchstone's scrip and scrippage (quoted above) was an alliterative counterpart, and meant a purse and the money it contained. In time the connotation of honorable was dropped, and to take bag and baggage simply meant to clear out completely. It appears in this sense in Samuel Richardson's novel Pamela of 1741: "'Bag and baggage,' said she, 'I'm glad you're going.'" In 1877 William Ewart Gladstone, leader of Britain's Liberal Party, made a speech urging the victorious Turks to end their occupation and get out of Bulgaria "bag and baggage," giving rise to the name "bag-and-baggage policy" for his anti-imperialist views.
During the Gulf War, an Iraqi radio announcer who tried to lower U.S. morale through her propaganda messages. A World War II equivalent was Japan's Tokyo Rose.
Parachute out of a disabled aircraft. The term came into wide usage during World War II. A 1944 book was entitled Eight Bailed Out. Several decades earlier the expression had been used in civilian vocabulary to mean escaping some situation, as in "bail out a failing company." The noun bailout signifies giving financial aid to an ailing organization. In the first decade of the 21st century the U.S. government issued a number of bailouts to failing banks and corporations.
A small package of emergency supplies issued to troops facing the need of bailing out (see above). It consisted of a chocolate bar, dextrose tablets, concentrated bouillon, and chewing gum, weighed only 8.25 ounces, and could fit into a soldier's shirt pocket.
A knitted wool cap that pulls over the head and neck, leaving an opening only for the face. Probably few skiers and winter sports enthusiasts know that their warm head covering's official name comes from the town of Balaklava, immortalized by the ill-advised charge of the Light Brigade celebrated in Tennyson's poem. Balaklava today is part of Sebastapol, in the Ukraine. During the Crimean War, on October 25, 1854, there was a disputed error in orders, and as a result the Earl of Cardigan, never a brilliant commander, led an English light-cavalry brigade of 673 men in a hopeless charge on a heavily protected Russian position; 247 of the men were killed or wounded. Although the war eventually ended with Russia's defeat in 1856, the allied soldiers were ill equipped and provisioned. Suffering considerably from the harsh conditions, especially in winter, they adopted various kinds of clothing to keep warm, including the balaclava. For a couple of decades following the war, the name balaclava was also used for a full beard, as worn by those soldiers lucky enough to return from the Crimea.
The division of an area into a number of smaller, weaker, contentious units; by extension, the division of a group or organization into smaller warring factions. The word refers to the numerous separate countries and territories on the Balkan peninsula that resulted from the breakup of the European lands held by the once powerful Ottoman Empire, which was weakened and eventually dissolved in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
The Balkan peninsula is bounded by the Adriatic, Aegean, and Black seas, and the first lands lost by the Turks were those farthest inland on the European continent: Hungary and Transylvania, taken by Austria. Next they lost Podolia and Bessarabia to Russia, and then Moldovia, Bosnia, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Rumania, along with portions of Greece. Generally speaking, all the European nations wanted to weaken Turkey and therefore encouraged feelings of nationalism and revolt among Turkey's subject peoples. However, each country resented any increase of power by the other. Therefore, although Britain backed the fight for freedom of the various Balkan nationalities within the Ottoman Empire, on several occasions it supported Turkey's territorial claims, mainly because the British regarded Russia, and not Turkey, as their principal enemy. France and Germany took similar positions. Russia's ambitions were blocked when it lost the Crimean War (1856), but it then took advantage of the war between France and Prussia (1871) to renege on an earlier treaty and arm the shores of the Black Sea. Meanwhile Moldavia and Wallachia united and formed Rumania, and in 1875 the peasants of Herzegovina, joined by Bosnia, Serbia, and Montenegro, rose up against the Turks, and they were quickly joined by Bulgaria. With the help of Russia, which defeated Turkey, Bulgaria emerged virtually independent and much enlarged.
Once these small territories did attain sovereignty, they did not stop quarreling among themselves. Just before the outbreak of World War I they became embroiled in two brief conflicts, the First and Second Balkan Wars, which, historians believe, set the stage for World War 1. After World War I six formerly separate Balkan states -- Bosnia, Herzegovina, Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, and Montenegro -- made up a new nation, Yugoslavia, but relations among them, both inside Yugoslavia and with the other Balkan states, remained strained. In the 1990s it eventually resulted in outright war and breakup of Yugoslavia.
It was about this time that the words balkanize and balkanization were invented. The British historian Arnold Toynbee said the words were first coined by German socialists to describe what the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk had done to the western border of Russia. According to this treaty, which was a separate peace treaty between newly Communist Russia and Germany and Austria-Hungary, signed in March, 1918, Russia recognized the independence of the Ukraine and Georgia, confirmed the independence of Finland, gave up Poland, the Baltic states, and part of Byelorussia to Germany and Austria, and ceded some lands to Turkey. The general armistice of November, 1918, made the treaty null and void. Nevertheless balkanization -- the creation of many small states, generally antagonistic and perhaps unviable -- continued. After World War II the term was applied to former European colonies in Asia and Africa which, after attaining independence, broke up into smaller entities based on tribalism and internal rivalries. In this way the former colony of French Equatorial Africa became four separate nations, Ruanda-Urundi became two, the eastern portion of Pakistan became Bangladesh, and so on. The term also is occasionally used for smaller units than nations. For example, a recent newspaper editorial described a formerly cohesive homogeneous neighborhood -- Boston's Beacon Hill -- as being balkanized through the purchase of property by individuals who treat it as a secondary city residence and spend most of their time elsewhere.
An enterprise or action begins. This term dates from World War I, when the British artillery would send up a balloon to signal gunners along the line to begin firing. Presumably a readily seen balloon was considered more reliable than sending a courier or some other means of communication. The phrase was adopted by the American military and eventually was broadened in civilian life to mean any beginning, such as referring to the opening of a new store.
A World War I term meaning at all-out speed, alluding to full throttle. The ball-topped throttle in a piston-engine plane would be pushed forward until it nearly touched the firewall.
The barrier of suspicion and mistrust between the People's Republic of China and its allies on the one hand and the non-Communist nations of Asia and the West on the other. It seems to have been coined by Time magazine in 1949 ("The Communist bosses of Peiping dropped a bamboo curtain, cutting off Peiping from the world.") A counterpart of the iron curtain between the Soviets and the non-Communist world, the expression bamboo curtain was never as widely used and may be obsolescent.
A built-in bench along the wall of a restaurant. The name originally (seventeenth century) was a French word for a gunners' platform erected behind a defensive wall or parapet. The resemblance of the furniture, first so called in the mid-nineteenth century, to the fortification is quite straightforward. In one part of the southern United States, however, the word banquette means a sidewalk, presumably because the early wooden sidewalks of Louisiana and eastern Texas were raised structures above the muddy soil.
A war cry or shout. It is actually a Japanese expression that means "May you live 10,000 years," and was uttered on happy occasions until World War II, when it was shouted upon the launching of a suicide attack (see kamikaze). The term was first transliterated in the late nineteenth century, although presumably by then it had been used for many centuries. During and after the war it also came to be used as an adjective -- as in banzai attack -- to mean suicidal.
First exposure to the fire of battle; by extension, initial encounter with any ordeal, such as one's first public speech. The term comes from martyrdom -- that is, the experience of martyrs who were burned at the stake -- but was used in nineteenth-century France to describe a soldier going into battle for the first time. Barry O'Meara's account of Napoleon Bonaparte's exile quotes him as saying, "I love a brave soldier who has undergone the baptism of fire." The term was similarly used in a letter from Napoleon III to the Empress Eugénie, describing their son Louis's participation in the Battle of Saarbruck as son baptême de feu. The young Louis later joined his father in exile in England, enlisted in the British army, and died fighting the Zulus in Africa, at the age of 22.
An uncivilized person. This term dates from the days of the Roman Empire, when it was used for an outsider, that is, anyone whose language and customs differed. Later it was extended from non-Roman to non-Hellenic and non-Christian, whence its present meaning.
A sudden and excessive outpouring. It comes from the French barrage, meaning barrier, and was so used from the mid-nineteenth century on. Around the time of World War I, it became more specific -- that is, a shortening of the French tir de barrage, meaning a curtain or barrier of artillery fire that would destroy everything before it and thereby protect advancing troops. Today the word is used both for a literal outpouring (of fire, artillery, etc.) and figuratively, as in a barrage of questions from reporters or a barrage of insults from a hostile crowd.
A balloon anchored near a land target or attached to a ship, designed to snag attacking aircraft. During World War II barrage balloons took out almost 300 German V-1s, or buzz bombs. ( Also see buzz bomb.) Nicknames for the barrage balloon include old floppy and flying elephant.
An aviation stunt consisting of rolling an aircraft over and over, like going around in a barrel. During World War I it was used either to evade pursuers or simply for practice.
A barrier erected to prevent the passage of troops, automobiles, sea water, etc. Although the practice of building such structures is surely older, the term probably comes from late sixteenth-century France. In 1588, when Count Henri de Guise returned to Paris in defiance of the hated and incompetent king, Henry III, the King called out the Swiss Guards. Parisians then tore up pavements, threw chains across streets, and piled up barrels (barriques, in French) filled with earth and stones, from behind which they shot at the King's soldiers. The King was forced to flee Paris, Henri de Guise took over the throne, and ever since, May 12, 1588 has been called, in French history books, la Journée des Barricades (the day of the barricades).
The system of barricades continued to be used in Paris in later times of rebellion. In the mid-nineteenth century, when Napoleon III decided to rebuild the city into a splendid modern capital, the wide boulevards and open squares he had constructed were supposed to prevent the erection of barricades. However, barricades again were used by the revolutionary Commune of Paris, which set itself up against the conservative French government toward the end of the Franco-Prussian War (1871). Today barricades are used to block off a street following a fire, to re-route traffic for a parade, and for similar purposes.
A person too impaired to function. This term dates from World War I, when it meant a soldier who had lost all four limbs and therefore had to be carried off the field in a litter, or "basket." Later it was transferred to an emotionally or mentally unstable person. It is also occasionally used for something that fails to function.
"The wild unrest that lives in woe….
And topples round the dreary west
A looming bastion fringed with fire."
-- Alfred Lord Tennyson, In Memoriam (1850)
A stronghold or defensive bulwark; by extension, any kind of protection. In the age of chivalry, the bastion, whose name comes from the French, was a five-sided projection in the wall of a fort or castle designed to give the defenders a wider range of fire. From the castle wall itself, the direction in which they could fire was necessarily limited; the bastion gave them almost a full circle of range. From the seventeenth century on the word also has been used figuratively, as in "Geneva was a bastion of Calvinism."
A stick or wand used by a conductor of music. The word came into English in the sixteenth century, via French, from the Latin bastum, for stick or staff, and at that time signified a short stout club used as a weapon and also carried as a mark of office. Today a baton still is carried by parade marshals, military officers, and other leaders on ceremonial occasions. However, since the nineteenth century the word also has been used for the stick with which conductors direct musicians.
Until the nineteenth century orchestras rarely had a separate leader. Instead, one of their number -- usually a violinist, organist, or harpsichordist -- led the group and played his own instrument at the same time. One of the first conductors of note was the French composer Jean-Baptiste Lully, and the baton he used proved to be the death of him. He used a long staff, and while beating time with it he struck himself in the foot and died from the resulting infection.
bats in the belfry See under belfry.
Prepare for action. This term originated in the navy, where it signified prpeparing for a storm or for battle by fastening down canvas over hatches (openings) in the deck with strips of wood called battens.
"In households where raised buckwheat cakes were served
every morning a cup of batter was left to 'rise' them,
instead of fresh yeast."
-- Yankee Cookbook
A mixture of flour, sugar, eggs, and similar ingredients used to make a cake, bread, pancakes, or some other culinary concoction. The word entered the language in the fourteenth century and comes from the Latin battere via the French battreassault and battery an unlawful attack on an individual, as well as in the military ,