To our four children,
Mark, Jeremy, Cambria, and Andrew.
It is you—bar none—whom I care most to lead in the best way possible by the grace of God.
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
INTRODUCTION
1. THE TOP-DOWN ATTITUDE
The Number One Leadership Hang-up
2. PUTTING PAPERWORK BEFORE PEOPLEWORK
Confessions of a Type A Personality
3. THE ABSENCE OF AFFIRMATION
What Could Be Better Than a Pay Raise?
4. NO ROOM FOR MAVERICKS
They Bring Us the Future!
5. DICTATORSHIP IN DECISION MAKING
Getting beyond “I Know All the Answers”
6. DIRTY DELEGATION
Refusing to Relax and Let Go
7. COMMUNICATION CHAOS
Singing from the Same Page in the Hymnal
8. MISSING THE CLUES OF CORPORATE CULTURE
The Unseen Killer of Many Leaders
9. SUCCESS WITHOUT SUCCESSORS
Planning Your Departure the Day You Start
10. FAILURE TO FOCUS ON THE FUTURE
Prepare Yourself—It’s Later Than You Think
AFTERWORD
REFERENCES
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
EXTRAS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
One of my first big leadership challenges was with my Boy Scout troop as a young Eagle Scout. At fourteen, I was senior patrol leader, the guy who ran all the meetings and decided our troop’s direction. It was my first venture into leading others, and I have to admit I enjoyed the power to influence. Through my teen years, I held various jobs, which often transitioned into leadership roles. One that stands out is when I became head cook, at age fifteen, on the night shift at a Shoney’s Big Boy restaurant in my hometown of Huntsville, Alabama. It seems that from the time I was a teenager I have fallen into roles of leadership—and I have grown to love the challenges. I went on to work through my teens and twenties as a lifeguard, in direct sales, as a truck driver, a carpenter, house painting, and as a senior sales rep with a home security firm.
Through my subsequent two decades of assuming leadership positions, at various jobs in the world of business and in ministry, I had no formal training in the area. All that changed in 1986 when I met Sam Metcalf, president of CRM of Fullerton, California, who has since become one of my mentors (see chapter 7). Sam told me about an unusual professor at the Fuller School of Intercultural Studies in Pasadena, who was pioneering an innovative approach to leadership study for Christian leaders. So I flew to California to meet this unique gentleman and was sold on his approach to leadership training. By September 1987 I was deeply immersed in my doctoral studies under the mentorship of this colorful individual, Bobby Clinton. Clinton has done more than anyone to revolutionize my view of leadership and to put me on track for what I believe to be biblical leadership values that will serve me well into the twenty-first century.
I must also acknowledge the unbelievable support of my wife, Donna. For more than three decades she has put up with my bursts of energy that overextend me amid the chaos of an already busy life and heavy responsibilities. I committed to write the book you hold in your hands before being selected to the leadership role I now fill in a global enterprise. This position has consumed most of my attention since I assumed my role in 1993. I appreciate the many nights and weekends away from home Donna has allowed to enable me to complete this project, which was so important to me.
My leadership is our leadership. Anything I have learned or done of value in these years I share in partnership with the great wife God has graciously given me. And now, fifteen years after I first wrote the original version of this book, the kids have left the nest, but she continues faithfully at my side in full support of my leadership. I am a blessed man indeed.
INTRODUCTION
The setting was a stuffy, windowless conference room at the local Holiday Inn. Hot, tired, and weary, we were nearing the end of a marathon day of intense scrutiny as my wife, Donna, and I were meeting with our organization’s CEO-search committee. I was the primary candidate for becoming the new president, and the committee wanted to ensure no stones were left unturned. This all-day session was the culmination of their six-month investigation into my background. I felt the same emotions people must feel when submitting themselves to the searchlight intensity of Senate confirmation hearings.
One of the gentlemen on my left asked me a question that surprised me: “Hans, tell us why you want to become our new leader.”
To put this question in perspective, our organization, WorldVenture, is global. We have a presence in more than sixty countries, with an overseas personnel force of more than 600. In addition, we have a home office in the United States with a staff of more than fifty, and four regional offices throughout North America. The CEO oversees an annual budget of twenty-five million dollars.
“Did I ever say I wanted to become the leader?” I answered with a big smile. “You never heard that from my lips!” I went on to explain that I had always been willing during my twelve-year tenure in the organization to accept larger responsibilities. And now I was willing to take the top job, “But be very clear that I am willing, not seeking.”
I knew that this career move would bring tremendous pressure into my life, my marriage, and my young family. I had a house full with four children, the oldest just reaching his teenage years. Now that I have been in the role for more than a decade, I have bad news for you aspiring leaders out there: It is a lot more intense than I ever imagined! I have now logged twenty-seven years with WorldVenture, including fourteen as president. Leadership is one long journey of constant stress. A woman commented to me one day after I had given a vision talk about our organization, “You must absolutely love your job!” I thought to myself, Well I suppose … on some days … when the planets are all aligned and everything is actually going right.
Leadership can be dangerous. To understand this, study world history and the lives of great and terrible leaders and what they accomplished through others. We who are in leadership can, on one hand, move men, women, and mountains for tremendous good. On the other hand, we hold the power to do irreparable damage to our followers by the mistakes we make.
The greater our sphere of leadership influence, the higher our impact on the world around us. And the more people we lead, the greater the potential damage caused through our poor decisions and actions. This is one of the sobering realities we must face when we accept the mantle of leadership.
Good leaders seem to be a scarce commodity today. There are plenty of openings but fewer good candidates. Why is it that so many companies, organizations, churches, and schools are looking for leaders to fill empty slots? Perhaps the problem is not really that new. Thousands of years ago a wise man wrote:
“I looked for a man among them who would … stand before me in the gap on behalf of the land so I would not have to destroy it, but I found none” (Ezek. 22:30).
Since the first edition of this book was created in the early 1990s, I have had the opportunity to speak with many different leaders from many different walks of life: policemen, teachers, school administrators, corporate leaders, middle management, government agency employees, businessmen, salespeople, family business owners, and, of course, the elders and staff of local churches. I am often asked, “Have you changed your mind about the top ten mistakes fifteen years later?” My answer: Absolutely not! Though I now have a list of the next dozen mistakes leaders make.
My years in the pressure cooker of leadership have confirmed everything I share in this book, and they have encouraged me to add a few new insights that I learned along the way. I have simply tried to share some of the great lessons I’ve gleaned on leadership that came through my own mistakes. This book is not intended to answer the question of leadership scarcity, but rather to look at what makes a good leader go bad, or better yet, what habits to avoid if you want to help fill the gap and replenish the great leadership famine. It is a resource book for anyone in any kind of leadership role.
If you have read this far, you are no doubt a leader with a leadership challenge. The challenge may be with your own leadership or with someone who leads you. Or it could be with the people you are being asked to lead. I hear from so many readers who work under oppressive leaders. I hope this book is an encouragement to them.
My informal survey of leaders suggests that people fall into leadership more by accident than by design. Through whatever circumstances led them to that point, they are thrown into leadership and become what I call “reluctant leaders.” How many actually sign up or apply for leadership positions? It is the kind of role you are chosen for—you usually do not volunteer.
After falling into leadership, we tend to do what comes naturally—we “wing it.” And that’s what gets leaders into trouble, because good leadership practice is often the opposite of conventional wisdom. It may come naturally, for instance, to treat employees like children, but it is much better to treat them with adult respect—as your most precious resources for success.
Few prepare themselves or volunteer for leadership. It is a calling for the appointed. This seems to be true across the board—in industry, business, and government. And it is equally true if not more so in ministry vocations. Many people who come into positions of leadership in churches or Christian organizations have little or no training in leadership and management. Leaders of Christian enterprises tend to be spiritually qualified but often organizationally illiterate. The problem is, leadership requires both the heart and the head.
The greatest lessons I’ve learned about good leadership have been through my own mistakes. And from bad examples. Those mistakes and bad examples have helped identify some common patterns in the mistakes leaders tend to make.
So what are the most common pitfalls of leadership? And, can we really learn any good lessons from the bad mistakes of others?
LEARNING GOOD FROM THINGS THAT GO BAD
Years ago my own professional career came to a screeching halt as I fell into a deep, black pit of burnout. The situation stemmed largely from my relationship with the leader above me. I had finished college and graduate school to prepare myself for a successful career in my chosen field. My heart was filled with dreams and visions of how I would make a difference in the world. Look out world, here I come! Through my efforts, I began to accomplish a few good things. I was involved with an exciting new venture that was really making a difference.
But my professional track record was about to be derailed, and I never saw it coming. Great leaders challenge people to attempt things they would never try on their own. I met a man who inspired me and challenged me to a great cause. He recruited me with promises of great things to come. I was going to be a part of something much larger than I had ever dreamed of. My wife and I moved to join his team, and the first few years were excellent. Great leaders do that. They inspire us to go places we would never go on our own and to attempt things we never thought we had in us.
Then it happened. At the five-year marker under his leadership, things began to unravel. He lost confidence in me and I in him. Suddenly my world came crashing down around me. Those youthful hopes and early dreams were dashed like waves crashing against ugly, jagged rocks. I lost sight of the future as I fell deep into a valley of depression. My heart, once filled with zeal to do good in a bad world, was suddenly filled with bitterness. I was angry, and that anger arose out of my frustration over broken dreams and unfulfilled promises.
And who was the main cause of my blame? I would be arrogant not to take the blame myself. I was at fault for failing to learn some important lessons in leadership. God was lowering my pride a few hundred notches and teaching me much about my own leadership shortcomings.
GREAT LEADERS INSPIRE US TO GO PLACES WE WOULD NEVER GO ON OUR OWN AND TO ATTEMPT THINGS WE NEVER THOUGHT WE HAD IN US.
Then there was my soon-to-be-former leader. A person with some great qualities but also some equally great shortcomings. I fell from such heights of promise to such depths of despair in part because of his actions—and in some respects because of his neglect. This leader, like most, had no clue as to how much power he wielded over his subordinates. Great leaders forget what it feels like to be led. Some have never even experienced “followership,” because they have led from the moment they were born—right out of the womb, bossing Mom and Dad around!
Leaders have incredible power for good or ill in people’s lives. A few control the destiny of many. But how many of us start out with lofty ideals and dreams, only to be soured by our experiences with other leaders? Before we know it, people lose trust, and the trench warfare begins. Or nothing is said, but confidence in our leadership begins to erode quickly. People resign and walk. Leaders are fired. Division, strife, and backbiting reign. The work, whatever it is, is slowed, damaged, or comes to a screeching halt.
LEADERSHIP IS INFLUENCE
The subject of leadership can be very confusing. If you would ask me to recommend one good book on leadership, I would probably pause and draw a blank. It’s not that I don’t have shelves of great books on the subject; it’s just that they emphasize so many various nuances of the subject. I would ask you what area of leadership you want to read about. One of my top ten favorite general books on the qualities of great leadership is a classic written in 1989: Leaders, by Warren Bennis and Burt Nanus. They begin by relating the frustrating history of research into the true nature of great leadership.
Decades of academic analysis have given us more than 350 definitions of leadership. Never have so many labored so long to say so little. Like love, leadership continued to be something everyone knew existed but nobody could define. Many other theories of leadership have come and gone. Some looked at the leader. Some looked at the situation. None has stood the test of time. With such a track record, it is understandable why leadership research and theory have been so frustrating as to deserve the label “the La Brea Tar Pits” of organizational inquiry. Located in Los Angeles, these asphalt pits house the remains of a long sequence of prehistoric animals that came to investigate but never left the area.
HOW DO YOU SPELL LEADERSHIP?
I-N-F-L-U-E-N-C-E
I tend to view the profound process of leadership in terms of a very simple definition: Leadership is influence. That’s it. A one-word definition. Anyone who influences someone else to do something has led that person. Another way to say this might be: A leader takes people where they would never go on their own.
DO MOST LEADERS JUST WING IT?
Years have passed since my experience with leadership gone bad. I have forgiven that leader. In fact, to this day I admire him for the many great leadership gifts he has. And I thank him for all he contributed to my life in our years together. He is what I would call a born leader. He inspired me toward greatness. He helped me in countless ways. And hopefully I have learned from his mistakes.
What makes leaders fail? Why are bad leadership habits perpetuated? Because most of us who lead have neither been formally trained nor had good role models. So we lead as we were led. We wing it.
At a recent conference of Christian pastors and leaders, the question was raised, “How many of you ever had one course in college or seminary on how to lead effectively?” The results were shocking. Almost no one had had any formal training. Lacking any training, leaders lead as they were led. They may be extensively trained in how to do ministry, but not in how to lead others who minister. Seminaries rarely offer such training. Churches don’t do a very good job of it, either. It is left to books, seminars, tapes, and other informal sources of training to build the leader’s knowledge of skills in leadership.
This problem is not unique to people in ministry. The lack of training and preparation runs the entire spectrum of people in leadership. The average leader faces at least five problems in learning to lead, each of which will be addressed with solutions in this book:
1. Today’s leaders replicate the poor leadership habits they have observed in others. We will look at how we imitate what we see modeled.
2. Today’s leaders often lack basic skills for common leadership demands. We will look at some positive skills and attitudes that can overcome the top ten mistakes I will present.
3. Today’s leaders lack good models and mentoring. I will illustrate positive leadership values with some real-life examples of good leaders.
4. Today’s leaders lack formal training in leadership. Since formal training is usually not available for the busy leader, this book offers practical insight that he or she can use.
5. Today’s Christian leaders suffer confusion over the conflict between secular and biblical leadership values. This problem is unique for those in ministry. An important underpinning of my approach is to highlight the contrast between what the Bible values in leadership (the best example of good leadership is Jesus Christ and his servanthood approach) and what secular leaders often value (all too often, top-down control).
This book is for those of you who find yourselves called to lead and are a bit apprehensive about blowing it. And it is for those of you who struggle under the poor leadership of others. The insights in these pages apply whether you are leading a company, a ministry, a department, one or two coworkers, a Girl Scout club, an army platoon, a committee, or your family.
Today the influence of my generation of leaders, the baby boomers, is in full swing. But in the not-too-distant future we will be filling the nursing homes, and the emerging generations will be coming into positions of leadership across the land. I can see a whole new hunger for practical leadership wisdom emerging among today’s young leaders. That excites me! As the younger generations are being called on to lead everything from Fortune 500 companies and family businesses to churches, seminaries, missions, factories, and even the U.S. government, it is my chance to mentor them as I am able with lessons I have learned during my years at the wheel.
WHY DO NEW LEADERS OFTEN GET A BAD START?
We replicate the poor leadership habits of others.
We lead as we were led.
We aren’t born with leadership skills.
We lack good models and mentors.
We lack formal training.
Top-flight leaders really aren’t born; they learn by trial and error. Poor leadership habits and practices can spawn new generations of poor leaders. Or they can create enough discomfort that the leader figures out how to do it right. That has been my own experience, and I offer the notes from my journey to others who are called to lead.
When my children were young, I enjoyed stealing away from the pressures of my work to take them for bike rides on some of the great riding trails not far from our home. As the dad, it was usually in my hands to determine whether the day would be fun for them, or a disaster. I was the designated leader. If we were to go out for several hours, I would grab the right equipment and supplies for all emergencies. (Actually, to be totally honest, it was their mom who pulled it all together!) We would get tires pumped up, and gather the right clothes, food, and water for the journey. No trip with little ones was complete without being prepared for pitfalls along the way: potholes, sunburn, thirst, windburn, scrapes, bruises, saddle sores, careening cars (therefore, helmets), and fatigue. The best biking equipment in the world is overshadowed by the smallest problem like a tiny leak and no repair kit, or a blazing sun and no sunscreen. I have great memories of those many outings—but they were not without careful preparation.
Leadership is like that. The good you do can be destroyed by the precautions you fail to take. No matter how skilled or gifted we are as leaders, one or two glaring blind spots can ruin our influence. A few bad habits can void the effectiveness of all our talents and accomplishments. The bottom line? An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of good leadership. Thus our need to take a look at some common leadership mistakes.
The privilege of leadership is a high calling … and an adventure! Perhaps the significance of doing it right is best summed up by George Bernard Shaw in Man and Superman:
This is the true joy in life, the being used for a purpose recognized by yourself as a mighty one; the being a force of nature instead of a feverish selfish little clod of ailments and grievances complaining that the world will not devote itself to making you happy.
I want to be thoroughly used up when I die, for the harder I work the more I live. I rejoice in life for its own sake. Life is no “brief candle” to me. It is a sort of splendid torch which I have got hold of for the moment, and I want to make it burn as brightly as possible before handing it on to future generations. (84)
1
THE TOP-DOWN ATTITUDE
The Number One Leadership Hang-up
The top-down attitude comes naturally to most people.
Servant leadership is much more rare.
Effective leaders see themselves at the bottom of an inverted pyramid.
I intended to save the best for last, like a David Letterman top-ten countdown. But on second thought, I realize that this top-down attitude problem is like the mother of all leadership hang-ups. If you have it, you will spread it to everything your leadership hands touch. So it must come first as the foundation to everything else I will observe about how not to lead.
At a leadership conference for pastors and their wives in northern California several months ago, I was speaking on the theme of top leadership mistakes. One man came up to me after a session and asked the obvious question: “Which is the top of the top ten?” That was an easy question for me to answer. I believe that the number-one leadership sin is that of top-down autocratic leadership.
You would think people would have learned by now, yet it still keeps cropping up: that age-old problem of domineering, autocratic, top-down leadership. Of all the sins of poor leadership, none is greater and none is still committed more often, generation after generation.
“He that thinketh he leadeth and hath no one following him only taketh a walk.”
—Dr. John Maxwell
The top-down approach to leadership is based on the military model of barking orders to weak underlings. It goes something like this: “I’m in charge here, and the sooner you figure that out the better!” Take, for example, this story related to me by one of my students when I was teaching a course on leadership:
My organization was looking for a new regional leader. Those making the decision had somebody picked out. However, before finalizing it, they were going to meet with different people to receive feedback on the individual they had chosen. I gave them my serious concerns and observations. Even though they took the time to listen to us, they really didn’t hear what we were saying. In the end, our input and feedback was rejected. And our predictions came to pass. How did this whole situation make us feel? We concluded that the leaders at the top had already made up their minds regarding their choice, and that, almost as an afterthought, they had decided to talk to us “underlings” to try to get our rubberstamp approval. It made me feel as if they didn’t really want or need my input. If they would have listened to us, we would have been spared the pain, misunderstanding, and hurt when it became obvious to everyone that this individual was the wrong choice for leadership.
One blatantly irritating practice of some leaders who exercise a top-down style is the use of knowledge—or really the lack thereof—to keep people in line and in place.
Knowledge in an organization is power. A leader can use this power to dominate underlings by keeping them guessing and in the dark.
Dictators have long recognized that others’ knowledge is their worst enemy. I grew up in Alabama in the Deep South, where the whites kept the blacks ignorant so their knowledge could not become dangerous. I’ll never forget the day our governor stood before the entrance to the University of Alabama to bar a young black girl from becoming our state’s first black student at a white university. It was a sick and mistaken attitude of arrogance that, fortunately for us all, soon crumbled.
WHERE TOP-DOWN SHOWS UP
Abusive authority
Deplorable delegation
Lack of listening
Dictatorship in decision making
Lack of letting go
Egocentric manner
If people are kept in the darkness of ignorance, they are less likely to revolt against a ruthless ruler. For that reason, for years communist border guards were ordered to confiscate current magazines and newspapers from Western tourists. In the years when I traveled in Eastern Europe, the border guards always asked us if we had three categories of “contraband”: weapons, books and magazines, and Bibles. They knew that if the truth got into the hands of the citizens, the task of maintaining tyranny would become more difficult.
The Royal Bank Letter, a Canadian publication, made this observation:
A prophetic expert on the subject of tyranny through ignorance, Adolf Hitler, wrote inMein Kampf that propaganda, to be effective, must operate on the level of the “most stupid” members of society. Hitler, who loathed universal education, knew that ignorance goes hand-in-hand with gullibility. He realized that he could best “work his wicked will,” as Winston Churchill put it, when his audience was kept in the dark.
Top-down leadership can become like a chain reaction. The boss barks orders to the employee. The employee goes home and barks orders at his spouse. The spouse barks orders at the children. The children kick the dog, and the dog chases the neighborhood cat! It comes so naturally to most of us to be autocratic, but it also happens to be a great leadership mistake.
Why do a lot of people fall into the trap of top-down leadership attitudes? For at least five reasons:
1. It’s traditional. Historically, autocratic, top-down leadership has been the most commonly practiced method. This is true in most of the more than one hundred countries I have visited. Far too many people simply learn this method by default.
2. It’s the most common. Even though much has been written about alternative forms of leadership, top-down leadership is still the most common kind.
3. It’s the easiest. It is much easier to simply tell people what to do than to attempt other, much more effective leadership styles.
4. It comes naturally. For some reason, the natural self prefers to dominate others and to try to amass power that can be held over other people. Leadership, by nature, seems to entail one person lording over another.
5. It reflects the dark side of human nature. For those of us who believe what the Bible teaches, humans don’t need any help to be depraved. A naturally sinful nature moves us toward dominating others and lording over them whenever possible.
CONTRASTING TWO APPROACHES
Much has been said in recent years about new styles of leadership that oppose the top-down, autocratic style. They come with new labels like “participatory management,” the “flat” organizational style, “democratic leadership,” or the model I prefer, called “servant leadership.” Servant leadership embraces all these new models and is built on principles that were laid out by perhaps the greatest leader this world has ever known—Jesus Christ.
A classic source book on this different kind of leadership is Servant Leadership, written thirty years ago by Robert K. Greenleaf. The book is subtitled, A Journey into the Nature of Legitimate Power and Greatness. He defines the whole process of servant leadership in these terms:
A new moral principle is emerging which holds that the only authority deserving one’s allegiance is that which is freely and knowingly granted by the led to the leader in response to, and in proportion to, the clearly evident servant stature of the leader. Those who choose to follow this principle will not casually accept the authority of existing institutions. Rather, they will freely respond only to individuals who are chosen as leaders because they are proven and trusted as servants. (9–10)
It is refreshing to me to realize that servant leadership is not new, even in secular management writings. More than forty years ago a landmark book began the revolution away from dictatorial leadership. In 1960 Douglas McGregor published The Human Side of Enterprise, in which he outlined what became known as “Theory X versus Theory Y” leadership style. Basically, McGregor believed that people really did want to do their best work in organizations, and if properly integrated into ownership of the goals of the organization, they would control themselves and do their best.
UNDERSTANDING YOUNG WORKERS
With more and more emerging-generation workers on the scene, managers need to understand what turns them on and off.
TURN-ONS
Recognition and praise
Time spent with managers
Learning how their current work is making them more marketable
Opportunities to learn new things
Fun at work—structured play, harmless practical jokes, cartoons, light competition, and surprises
Small, unexpected rewards for jobs well done
TURN-OFFS
Hearing about the past—especially yours
Inflexibility about time
Workaholism
Being watched and scrutinized
Feeling pressured to convert to traditionalist behavior
Disparaging comments about their generation’s tastes and styles
Feeling disrespected
—Lawrence J. Bradford and Claire Raines, Twenty-Something
To fully understand this notion one must look at the book in the context of the times in which it was written. In the 1950s and 1960s, there was a backlash against strong, centralized, authoritarian leadership styles. McGregor rode the wave of that changing attitude in our society and developed his Theory Y leadership model. It was based on respect for individual workers and gave them much more participation in their supervision and direction, with less rigid direction and control in the hands of their supervisors.
McGregor began what I see as a healthy trend toward servant leadership in the business world and helped move organizations toward a healthier model of leadership. His early theories are at the foundation of many popular management philosophies in the 1990s. I have summarized his Theory X versus Theory Y approach in the following chart. As you note the two columns, it is easy to see that Theory X entails the top-down leadership attitude. It never ceases to amaze me that all these years later, the awareness of Theory Y and other leadership alternatives still has not penetrated the mind-set of many world leaders.
Based on a new look at human nature and drawing heavily from motivational theory, Theory Y says that work can be enjoyable, and workers can do their best when trusted to motivate themselves in their work. Workers should be allowed to self-direct and self-control their tasks out of the respect and trust coming from management.
THEORY X
Work is inherently distasteful to most people.
Most people are not ambitious, have little desire for responsibility, and prefer to be directed.
Most people have little capacity for creativity in solving organizational problems.
Motivation occurs only at the physiological and safety levels.
Most people must be closely controlled and often coerced to achieve organizational goals.
THEORY Y
Work is as natural as play, if conditions are favorable.
Self-control is often indispensable in achieving organizational goals.
The capacity for creativity in solving organizational problems is widely distributed in the population.
People can be self-directed and creative at work, if properly motivated.
—Hersey, Blanchard, and Dewey, Management of Organizational Behavior