reading

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Alternative energy and shale gas encyclopedia / edited by Jay H. Lehr, editor-in-chief ; Jack Keeley, senior editor ; Thomas B Kingery, Information Technology.
        pages cm
    Includes index.
    ISBN 978-0-470-89441-5 (cloth)
    1. Renewable energy sources–Encyclopedias.2. Shale gas–Encyclopedias.I. Lehr, Jay H., 1936- editor. II. Keeley, J. W. (Jack W.), editor.III. Kingery, Thomas B., editor.
    TJ807.4.E53 2015
    621.04203–dc23

2014049361

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION: ENERGY DRIVES EVERYTHING

INTRODUCTION
SOME FUNDAMENTALS
ENERGY IS NOT POWER AND POWER IS NOT ENERGY
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
SUMMARY
NOTES

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

PART I WIND

1 ACCEPTANCE OF WIND POWER: AN INTRODUCTION TO DRIVERS AND SOLUTIONS
1. 1.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 1.2 THE TRADITIONAL DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES
3. 1.3 DYNAMIC EFFECTS FROM WIND POWER DEVELOPMENT
4. 1.4 OFFSHORE WIND FARMS A FUTURE SOLUTION?
5. 1.5 WIND POWER DEVELOPMENT AND THE DEMAND FOR OTHER RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
6. 1.6 CONCLUSIONS
7. REFERENCES
2 WIND POWER FORECASTING TECHNIQUES
1. 2.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 2.2 NUMERICAL WEATHER PREDICTION MODELS
3. 2.3 PERSISTENCE MODELS
4. 2.4 CHOOSING FORECAST PARAMETERS
5. 2.5 STATISTICAL AND NEURAL NETWORK METHODS
6. 2.6 ADAPTIVE NEURO-FUZZY INFERENCE SYSTEMS
7. 2.7 CASE STUDY
8. REFERENCES
3 MAXIMIZING THE LOADING IN WIND TURBINE PLANTS: (A) THE BETZ LIMIT, (B) DUCTING THE TURBINE
1. 3.1 THE WIND TURBINE EFFICIENCY
2. 3.2 THE BETZ LIMIT
3. 3.3 THE DUCTED WIND TURBINE
4. REFERENCES
4 MODELING WIND TURBINE WAKES FOR WIND FARMS
1. 4.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 4.2 EMPIRICAL METHODS TO ESTIMATE WAKE RECOVERY
3. 4.3 COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS
4. 4.4 ROTOR MODELING TECHNIQUES
5. 4.5 WIND TURBINE SIMULATIONS
6. 4.6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
7. REFERENCES
5 FATIGUE FAILURE IN WIND TURBINE BLADES
1. 5.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 5.2 DAMAGE INSPECTION IN REAL TURBINE BLADES
3. 5.3 EVALUATION OF FATIGUE LIFE
4. 5.4 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL OF THE BLADE
5. 5.5 DISCUSSIONS
6. 5.6 CONCLUSIONS
7. REFERENCES
6 FLOATING WIND TURBINES: THE NEW WAVE IN OFFSHORE WIND POWER
1. 6.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 6.2 CONCLUSION
3. REFERENCES
7 WIND POWER—AEOLE TURNS MARINE
1. 7.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 7.2 THE WIND TURBINE
3. 7.3 UNITED STATES AND EUROPEAN UNION
4. 7.4 NOT IN MY BACKYARD
5. 7.5 MARKET “EXPLOSION” AND ENVIRONMENTAL OBJECTIONS
6. 7.6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
7. 7.7 CONCLUSIONS
8. 7.8 MARINE ENERGY2
9. NOTE
10. REFERENCES
8 IMPACTS OF WIND FARMS ON WEATHER AND CLIMATE AT LOCAL AND GLOBAL SCALES
1. 8.1 OBSERVED IMPACTS
2. 8.2 HOW WIND TURBINES INTERACT WITH THE ATMOSPHERE
3. 8.3 HOW WIND FARMS ARE REPRESENTED IN WEATHER AND CLIMATE MODELS
4. 8.4 IMPACTS OF WIND FARMS ON LOCAL METEOROLOGY
5. 8.5 IMPACTS OF WIND FARMS ON REGIONAL AND GLOBAL CLIMATE
6. 8.6 MINIMIZING IMPACTS
7. 8.7 CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSIONS
8. REFERENCES
9 POWER CURVES AND TURBULENT FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF VERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINES
1. 9.1 RESIDENTIAL AND SMALL BUSINESS WIND POWER
2. 9.2 SMALL WIND TURBINE DESIGNS
3. 9.3 DEVELOPING A VARIABLE-GEOMETRY POWER CORRELATION FOR A VERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINE
4. 9.4 FORMULATION OF FLUID FLOW FOR NUMERICAL PREDICTIONS OF SMALL WIND TURBINES
5. 9.5 POWER CORRELATION FOR A UNIQUE VERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINE
6. 9.6 CONCLUSIONS
7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
8. REFERENCES
10 WINDMILL BRAKE STATE MODELS USED IN PREDICTING WIND TURBINE PERFORMANCE
1. 10.1 BACKGROUND
2. 10.2 BLADE ELEMENT MOMENTUM THEORY
3. 10.3 WINDMILL BRAKE STATE MODELS
4. 10.4 COMPARISON OF WINDMILL BRAKE STATE MODELS
5. REFERENCES
11 LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF WIND TURBINES AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA
1. 11.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 11.2 STATISTICAL PARAMETERS OF LIGHTNING CURRENTS
3. 11.3 LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF WIND TURBINES
4. 11.4 SOME CONCERNS REGARDING THE OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION OF WIND FARMS
5. 11.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
6. REFERENCES
12 WIND TURBINE WAKE MODELING—POSSIBILITIES WITH ACTUATOR LINE/DISC APPROACHES
1. 12.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 12.2 NUMERICAL MODEL
3. 12.3 RESULT
4. 12.4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
6. REFERENCES
13 RANDOM CASCADE MODEL FOR SURFACE WIND SPEED
1. 13.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 13.2 THE “M-RICE” TIME SERIES MODEL OF WIND SPEED
3. 13.3 APPLICATION TO WIND SPEED PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION ESTIMATION
4. 13.4 APPLICATION TO SHORT-TERM FORECASTING
5. NOTES
6. REFERENCES
14 WIND POWER BUDGET
1. 14.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 14.2 WIND BUDGET EQUATION IN THE SURFACE BOUNDARY LAYER (SBL)
3. 14.3 MONIN–OBUKHOV SIMILARITY THEORY AND MEAN WIND PROFILES IN THE SBL
4. 14.4 MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY OF A WIND TURBINE (BETZ'S LAW)
5. 14.5 FROUDE NUMBER AND BOUNDARY LAYER AIRFLOW ADJUSTMENT OVER COMPLEX TERRAIN
6. REFERENCES
15 IDENTIFICATION OF WIND TURBINES IN CLOSED-LOOP OPERATION IN THE PRESENCE OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL TURBULENCE WIND SPEED: TORQUE DEMAND TO MEASURED GENERATOR SPEED LOOP
1. 15.1 INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION OF THE WORK
2. 15.2 SELECTION OF THE EXPERIMENT FOR IDENTIFYING A DATA-BASED MODEL
3. 15.3 THE PROCEDURE FOR WT IDENTIFICATION OPERATING IN CLOSED LOOP: THE TORQUE LOOP
4. 15.4 MODEL IDENTIFICATION RESULTS
5. 15.5 CLOSED-LOOP PERFORMANCE
6. 15.6 DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS
7. 15.7 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
8. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
9. NOMENCLATURE
10. NOTES
11. REFERENCES
16 IDENTIFICATION IN CLOSED-LOOP OPERATION OF MODELS FOR COLLECTIVE PITCH ROBUST CONTROLLER DESIGN
1. 16.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 16.2 COLLECTIVE PITCH CONTROL LOOP
3. 16.3 CLOSED-LOOP OUTPUT ERROR IDENTIFICATION ALGORITHM IN THE PRESENCE OF NONLINEAR CONTROLLERS
4. 16.4 CLOSED-LOOP IDENTIFICATION SIMULATIONS FOR COLLECTIVE PITCH CONTROL LOOP
5. 16.5 IDENTIFIED MODELS
6. 16.6 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
7. APPENDIX A. MODEL COMPARISON: IDENTIFIED MODELS VERSUS LINEARIZED MODELS
8. NOMENCLATURE
9. ABBREVIATIONS
10. NOTES
11. REFERENCES
17 WIND BASICS—ENERGY FROM MOVING AIR
1. 17.1 WIND BASICS
2. 17.2 ELECTRICITY GENERATION FROM WIND
3. 17.3 WHERE WIND IS HARNESSED
4. 17.4 TYPES OF WIND TURBINES
5. 17.5 HISTORY OF WIND POWER
6. 17.6 WIND ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT
7. 17.7 DRAWBACKS OF WIND TURBINES
8. NOTE
18 WIND—CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

PART II SOLAR

19 SOLAR AIR CONDITIONING
1. 19.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 19.2 REFRIGERATION PROCESS
3. 19.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR SORPTION AIR CONDITIONERS
4. 19.4 A DEEPER INSIGHT INTO SOLAR ABSORPTION AIR CONDITIONING
5. 19.5 FINAL REMARKS: ADVANTAGES AND MAIN DRAWBACKS
6. REFERENCES
20 ENERGY PERFORMANCE OF HYBRID COGENERATION VERSUS SIDE-BY-SIDE SOLAR WATER HEATING AND PHOTOVOLTAIC FOR SUBTROPICAL BUILDING APPLICATION
1. 20.1 HYBRID SOLAR VERSUS SIDE-BY-SIDE SYSTEMS
2. 20.2 EXPERIMENTAL SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
3. 20.3 MATHEMATICAL MODELING
4. 20.4 NUMERICAL MODEL DEVELOPMENT AND VERIFICATION
5. 20.5 CASE STUDY FORMULATION
6. 20.6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
7. 20.7 CONCLUSION
8. 20.8 NOMENCLATURE
9. REFERENCES
21 POLYCRYSTALLINE SILICON FOR THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS
1. 21.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 21.2 TRENDS IN PHOTOVOLTAICS
3. 21.3 SILICON-BASED SOLAR CELLS
4. 21.4 HIGH-TEMPERATURE APPROACH
5. 21.5 LOW-TEMPERATURE APPROACH
6. 21.6 CONCLUSION
7. REFERENCES
22 SOLAR BASICS – ENERGY FROM THE SUN
1. 22.1 SOLAR BASICS
2. 22.2 WHERE SOLAR IS FOUND
3. 22.3 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC
4. 22.4 SOLAR THERMAL POWER PLANTS
5. 22.5 SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTORS
6. 22.6 SOLAR ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT
7. NOTE
23 NASA ARMSTRONG FACT SHEET: SOLAR-POWER RESEARCH
1. 23.1 BACKGROUND
2. 23.2 SOLAR CHALLENGER
3. 23.3 THE ERAST PROJECT
4. 23.4 AIRCRAFT SPECIFICATIONS
5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
24 SOLAR THERMAL – CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
25 PHOTOVOLTAIC – CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

PART III GEOTHERMAL

26 GEOTHERMAL: HISTORY, CLASSIFICATION, AND UTILIZATION FOR POWER GENERATION
1. 26.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 26.2 THE EARTH STRUCTURE
3. 26.3 NATURE AND CONSTITUENT OF GEOTHERMAL FLUID
4. 26.4 HISTORY OF GEOTHERMAL
5. 26.5 CLASSIFICATION OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
6. 26.6 UTILIZATION OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY FOR POWER GENERATION
7. 26.7 GEOTHERMAL TO POWER PRODUCTION FOR SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENT: PRESENT AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
8. 26.8 CONCLUSION
9. REFERENCES
27 ENHANCED GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
1. 27.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 27.2 HDR GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES AND ENHANCED GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
3. 27.3 EGS TO DATE
4. 27.4 FRACTURE MODELLING FOR EGS
5. 27.5 FLUID FLOW MODELING FOR EGS
6. 27.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS
7. REFERENCES
28 THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS
1. 28.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 28.2 GEOTHERMAL CYCLES
3. 28.3 FIRST LAW ANALYSIS
4. 28.4 SECOND LAW ANALYSIS
5. 28.5 AN APPLICATION
6. 28.6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
7. 28.7 CONCLUSIONS
8. 28.8 NOMENCLATURE
9. REFERENCES
29 SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT OF GEOTHERMAL POWER GENERATION
1. 29.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 29.2 PRESENT STATUS OF THE GEOTHERMAL POWER
3. 29.3 SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS OF GEOTHERMAL POWER
4. 29.4 COMPARISON OF SUSTAINABILITY OF GEOTHERMAL POWER WITH CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION TECHNOLOGIES
5. 29.5 CONCLUSIONS
6. REFERENCES
30 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY AND ORGANIC RANKINE CYCLE MACHINES
1. 30.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 30.2 THE GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE
3. 30.3 ORGANIC RANKINE CYCLE TECHNOLOGIES
4. 30.4 NEW ORGANIC RANKINE CYCLE MACHINES FOR GEOTHERMAL APPLICATION
5. 30.5 CONCLUSION
6. REFERENCES
31 LOW TEMPERATURE GEOTHERMAL ENERGY: GEOSPATIAL AND ECONOMIC INDICATORS
1. 31.1 INTRODUCTION TO GEOSPATIAL MODELLING OF THE GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE
2. 31.2 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF LOW-TEMPERATURE GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE
3. 31.3 SPATIAL EXPLORATORY ANALYSIS OF GEOTHERMAL ECONOMY
4. 31.4 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS OF REGIONAL MODELING OF RENEWABLE RESOURCES
5. NOTES
6. REFERENCES
32 DRY COOLING TOWERS FOR GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS
1. 32.1 SELECTION OF COOLING METHODS FOR GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS
2. 32.2 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS
3. 32.3 MECHANICAL DRAFT DRY COOLING TOWER
4. 32.4 NATURAL DRAFT DRY COOLING TOWER
5. 32.5 DEVELOPMENTS OF DRY COOLING TECHNOLOGIES FOR GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS
6. REFERENCES
33 THERMAL STORAGE
1. 33.1 THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE
2. 33.2 SENSIBLE THERMAL STORAGE
3. 33.3 LATENT THERMAL STORAGE
4. 33.4 THERMOCHEMICAL THERMAL STORAGE
5. 33.5 COMPARISON OF THERMAL STORAGE TYPES
6. 33.6 DESIGN, OPERATION, AND ECONOMICS OF THERMAL STORAGE
7. 33.7 BENEFITS OF THERMAL STORAGE
8. 33.8 APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL STORAGE
9. 33.9 EXAMPLES
10. 33.10 CLOSING REMARKS
11. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
12. REFERENCES
34 SHALLOW GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS: COMPUTATIONAL CHALLENGES AND POSSIBILITIES
1. 34.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 34.2 SHALLOW GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
3. 34.3 HEAT EQUATIONS IN SHALLOW GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
4. 34.4 ANALYTICAL AND SEMI-ANALYTICAL MODELING OF SHALLOW GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
5. 34.5 NUMERICAL MODELING OF SHALLOW GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
6. 34.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS
7. REFERENCES
35 GEOTHERMAL BASICS—WHAT IS GEOTHERMAL ENERGY?
1. 35.1 GEOTHERMAL BASICS
2. 35.2 WHERE GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IS FOUND
3. 35.3 USE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
4. 35.4 GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS
5. 35.5 GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS
6. 35.6 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT
36 GEOTHERMAL—CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

PART IV HYDROPOWER

37 SUSTAINABILITY OF HYDROPOWER
1. 37.1 DIMENSIONS OF SUSTAINABILITY
2. 37.2 NATIONAL REGULATIONS
3. 37.3 INTERNATIONAL GUIDELINES
4. 37.4 BANK SAFEGUARDS
5. 37.5 CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY INSTRUMENTS
6. REFERENCES
38 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES RELATED TO CONVENTIONAL HYDROPOWER
1. 38.1 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
2. 38.2 REGULATORY CRITERIA FOR SURVIVAL AND WATER QUALITY
3. 38.3 METHODS AND EFFORTS TO ADDRESS ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
4. 38.4 ENVIRONMENTAL-FRIENDLY HYDROPOWER SYSTEMS
5. REFERENCES
39 SOCIAL ISSUES RELATED TO HYDROPOWER
1. 39.1 SOCIAL ISSUES
2. 39.2 SOCIAL GROUPS
3. 39.3 SOCIAL MANAGEMENT
4. NOTES
5. REFERENCES
40 SAFETY IN HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT AND OPERATION
1. 40.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 40.2 ACCIDENT RISKS IN HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT AND OPERATION
3. 40.3 MANAGEMENT OF ACCIDENT RISKS
4. 40.4 MITIGATION OF ACCIDENT RISKS IN SELECTED AREAS
5. REFERENCES
41 PUMPED HYDROELECTRIC STORAGE
1. 41.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 41.2 DEVELOPMENT OF PUMPED HYDRO ENERGY STORAGE
3. 41.3 FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF PUMPED HYDRO ENERGY STORAGE
42 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM HYDROELECTRIC DAMS IN TROPICAL FORESTS
1. 42.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 42.2 TYPES OF EMISSION
3. 42.3 CONCLUSIONS
4. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
5. REFERENCES
43 PHYSICAL AND MULTIDIMENSIONAL NUMERIC HYDRAULIC MODELING OF HYDROPOWER SYSTEMS AND RIVERS
1. 43.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 43.2 SELECTED CASE STUDIES
3. 43.3 SUMMARY
4. REFERENCES
44 EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL MODELING TOOLS FOR CONVENTIONAL HYDROPOWER SYSTEMS
1. 44.1 UNDERWATER ACOUSTIC TELEMETRY
2. 44.2 FIXED-ASPECT HYDROACOUSTICS
3. 44.3 FIXED-ASPECT HYDROACOUSTIC SYSTEMS
4. 44.4 ACOUSTIC SCREEN MODEL
5. 44.5 PRESSURE TESTING
6. CASE STUDY
7. 44.6 BIOTELEMETRY
8. CASE STUDY
9. 44.7 SENSOR FISH
10. 44.8 BLADE-STRIKE MODELING
11. REFERENCES
45 THE STATE OF ART ON LARGE CAVERN DESIGN FOR UNDERGROUND POWERHOUSES AND SOME LONG-TERM ISSUES
1. 45.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 45.2 A SURVEY ON LARGE UNDERGROUND CAVERNS
3. 45.3 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY OF CAVERNS
4. 45.4 CAVERN DESIGN LOADS AND DIMENSIONING OF SUPPORT MEMBERS
5. 45.5 METHODS FOR CALCULATING THE DESIGN SUPPORT LOADS AND COMPARISONS AGAINST LOCAL INSTABILITY MODES
6. 45.6 SOME LONG-TERM ISSUES
7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
8. REFERENCES
46 HYDROELECTRIC POWER FOR THE NATION
1. 46.1 HYDROELECTRIC POWER FOR THE NATION
2. 46.2 WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF HYDROPOWER
3. 46.3 HYDROPOWER AND THE ENVIRONMENT
47 HYDROPOWER BASICS—ENERGY FROM MOVING WATER
1. 47.1 HYDROPOWER GENERATES ELECTRICITY
2. 47.2 HYDROPOWER RELIES ON THE WATER CYCLE
3. 47.3 MECHANICAL ENERGY IS HARNESSED FROM MOVING WATER
4. 47.4 HISTORY OF HYDROPOWER
5. 47.5 WHERE HYDROPOWER IS GENERATED
6. 47.6 HYDROPOWER AND THE ENVIRONMENT
7. 47.7 TIDAL POWER
8. 47.8 WAVE POWER
9. 47.9 OCEAN THERMAL
48 HYDROPOWER—CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

PART V BATTERIES AND FUEL CELLS

49 FUEL CELL CONTROL
1. 49.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 49.2 CONTROL OBJECTIVES
3. 49.3 CONTROL PROBLEM FORMULATION
4. 49.4 CONTROL STRUCTURES
5. 49.5 DYNAMIC MODELS FOR CONTROL
6. 49.6 CONCLUSIONS
7. REFERENCES
50 RECENT TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PROTON EXCHANGE MEMBRANE FUEL CELL SYSTEMS
1. 50.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 50.2 FUEL SOURCES FOR HYDROGEN PRODUCTION
3. 50.3 FUEL PROCESSING FOR PEMFCS
4. 50.4 PEMFC SYSTEM AT REFORMATE GAS OPERATION
5. 50.5 PROSPECT OF USING AN INTEGRATED PEMFC SYSTEM FOR STATIONARY AND AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONS
6. 50.6 CONCLUSIONS
7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
8. REFERENCES
51 INTEGRATED SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL SYSTEMS FOR ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION—A REVIEW
1. 51.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 51.2 FUNDAMENTAL OF SOFC SYSTEM
3. 51.3 SOFC-INTEGRATED PROCESSES
4. 51.4 SOFC WITH HYDROGEN PRODUCTION SYSTEM
5. 51.5 SOFC WITH GAS TURBINE
6. 51.6 SOFC–GT HYBRID SYSTEMS
7. 51.7 FUEL PROCESSOR COMBINED WITH SOFC–GT HYBRID SYSTEM
8. 51.8 COMBINED COOLING, HEATING, AND POWER GENERATION FOR SOFC SYSTEM
9. 51.9 CONCLUSION
10. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
11. REFERENCES
52 POLYMER ELECTROLYTES FOR LITHIUM SECONDARY BATTERIES
1. 52.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 52.2 POLYMER ELECTROLYTES
3. 52.3 BATTERY TECHNOLOGY
4. 52.4 LOOKING TO THE FUTURE
5. REFERENCES
53 RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL OF BATTERY MATERIALS
1. 53.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 53.2 CHEMISTRY OF BATTERIES
3. 53.3 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES RELATING TO SPENT BATTERY DISPOSAL
4. 53.4 DISPOSAL OPTIONS
5. 53.5 THE CHALLENGES OF RECYCLING
6. 53.6 RECYCLING AND RECOVERY METHODS
7. 53.7 DEVELOPING CELL TECHNOLOGIES AND IMPLICATIONS FOR RECYCLING
8. REFERENCES
54 AC OR DC

PART VI RENEWABLE ENERGY CONCEPTS

55 WILL RENEWABLES CUT CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS SUBSTANTIALLY?
1. 55.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 55.2 INTERMITTENCY, STORAGE, AND BACKUP
3. 55.3 AUTOMOBILE FUEL EFFICIENCY
4. 55.4 CONCLUSIONS
5. NOTES
56 THE CONCEPT OF BASE-LOAD POWER
1. 56.1 BALANCING SUPPLY AND DEMAND IN CONVENTIONAL SYSTEMS
2. 56.2 ENTER THE NEW RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
3. 56.3 FLEXIBLE AND VARIABLE RENEWABLE ELECTRICITY SOURCES
4. 56.4 DEMAND REDUCTION AND “SMART” GRIDS
5. 56.5 CONCLUSION
6. REFERENCES
57 TIDAL POWER HARNESSING
1. 57.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 57.2 THE ANCESTORS OF THE TIDAL POWER PLANT
3. 57.3 THE EXISTING TIDAL POWER PLANTS
4. 57.4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
5. 57.5 MODUS OPERANDI MODIFICATIONS AT THE RANCE
6. 57.6 NEW TURBINES
7. 57.7 TIDE CURRENT [TIDAL STREAM]
8. 57.8 NEW APPROACHES AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES
9. NOTES
10. REFERENCES
58 THE LOADING OF WATER CURRENT TURBINES: THE BETZ LIMIT AND DUCTED TURBINES
1. 58.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 58.2 THE BETZ ANALYSIS AND THE CORRESPONDING LIMIT
3. 58.3 CAVITATION AND MULTISTAGED TURBINES
4. 58.4 FREE SURFACE IMPLICATIONS
5. 58.5 DUCTED MARINE TURBINE CONCEPTS
6. REFERENCES
59 BOTTLED GAS AS HOUSEHOLD ENERGY
1. 59.1 PATTERNS OF HOUSEHOLD ENERGY USE
2. 59.2 LPG SUPPLY AND ECONOMICS
3. 59.3 FACTORS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD CHOICE OF LPG
4. 59.4 LPG MARKETS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
5. 59.5 CONTRIBUTING TO UNIVERSAL ACCESS TO MODERN ENERGY
6. NOTE
7. REFERENCES
60 EXERGY ANALYSIS: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS
1. 60.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 60.2 DEFINITION OF EXERGY
3. 60.3 REFERENCE ENVIRONMENT FOR EXERGY
4. 60.4 EXERGY QUANTITIES
5. 60.5 EXERGY BALANCE
6. 60.6 EXERGY ANALYSIS
7. 60.7 EXERGY EFFICIENCIES
8. 60.8 BENEFITS OF EXERGY ANALYSIS
9. 60.9 EXERGY ANALYSIS AND ECONOMICS
10. 60.10 EXERGY ANALYSIS AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
11. 60.11 APPLICATIONS OF EXERGY ANALYSIS
12. 60.12 CASE STUDY 1: NATIONAL ENERGY SYSTEM
13. 60.13 CASE STUDY 2: COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT
14. 60.14 TUTORIAL ON APPLYING EXERGY ANALYSIS TO PROCESSES RELATING TO POWER GENERATION AND COGENERATION
15. 60.15 CLOSING REMARKS
16. NOMENCLATURE
17. REFERENCES
61 GLOBAL TRANSPORT ENERGY CONSUMPTION
1. 61.1 GLOBAL TRANSPORT ENERGY STATISTICS: PAST AND PRESENT
2. 61.2 GLOBAL TRANSPORT ENERGY PROJECTIONS
3. 61.3 FUTURE TRANSPORT: ENERGY USE, EFFICIENCY
4. REFERENCES
62 BIOMASS: RENEWABLE ENERGY FROM PLANTS AND ANIMALS
1. 62.1 BIOMASS BASICS
2. 62.2 WOOD AND WOOD WASTE
3. 62.3 WASTE-TO-ENERGY
4. 62.4 BIOGAS
5. 62.5 BIOMASS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
6. NOTE
63 PLANTING AND MANAGING SWITCHGRASS AS A BIOMASS ENERGY CROP
1. 63.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 63.2 ESTABLISHING SWITCHGRASS
3. 63.3 POSSIBLE REASONS FOR POOR STAND ESTABLISHMENT
4. 63.4 FERTILIZATION NEEDS IN THE FIRST AND SUBSEQUENT YEARS
5. 63.5 SOIL CONDITIONS AT HARVEST
6. 63.6 HARVEST MANAGEMENT
7. 63.7 WILDLIFE CONSIDERATIONS
8. 63.8 STAND LONGEVITY
9. REFERENCES
64 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE—CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
65 ETHANOL—CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
66 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF METHANE HYDRATE BY EXPERIMENT AND MODELING AND IMPACTS UPON TECHNOLOGY
1. 66.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 66.2 EXPERIMENTAL MEASURMENTS
3. 66.3 MOLECULAR DYNAMIC SIMULATIONS
4. 66.4 RESERVOIR SIMULATION
5. 66.5 CONCLUSIONS
6. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
7. NOMENCLATURE
8. SUBSCRIPTS
9. REFERENCES

PART VII SHALE GAS

67 SHALE GAS WILL ROCK THE WORLD
1. 67.1 CORRECTION AND AMPLIFICATION
68 WHAT IS SHALE GAS?
1. 68.1 WHAT IS SHALE GAS AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?
2. 68.2 HORIZONTAL DRILLING AND HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
3. 68.3 THE UNITED STATES HAS ABUNDANT SHALE GAS RESOURCES
4. 68.4 ENOUGH FOR 110 YEARS OF USE
5. 68.5 WHAT IS A SHALE “PLAY”?
6. 68.6 HORIZONTAL DRILLING
7. 68.7 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
8. 68.8 SHALE GAS VERSUS CONVENTIONAL GAS
9. 68.9 NATURAL GAS: A CLEAN-BURNING FUEL
10. 68.10 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
69 DIRECTIONAL AND HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN OIL AND GAS WELLS
1. 69.1 WHAT IS DIRECTIONAL DRILLING?
2. 69.2 WHY DRILL WELLS THAT ARE NON-VERTICAL?
3. 69.3 ROCK UNITS THAT BENEFIT MOST FROM HORIZONTAL DRILLING
4. 69.4 HORIZONTAL DRILLING AND HYDRAULIC FRACTURING IN SHALES
5. 69.5 DRILLING METHODOLOGY
6. 69.6 A NEW LEASE AND ROYALTY PHILOSOPHY
70 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING OF OIL AND GAS WELLS DRILLED IN SHALE
1. 70.1 WHAT IS HYDRAULIC FRACTURING?
2. 70.2 HOW LONG HAS HYDRAULIC FRACTURING BEEN USED?
3. 70.3 SUCCESSFUL USE OF HYDRAULIC FRACTURING IN SHALE
4. 70.4 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING IN OTHER SHALE PLAYS
5. 70.5 FRACTURING FLUIDS
6. 70.6 PROPPANTS
7. 70.7 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
8. 70.8 PRODUCTION BENEFITS
71 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING: A GAME-CHANGER FOR ENERGY AND ECONOMIES
1. 71.1 INTRODUCTION
2. 71.2 THE EXTRACTION PROCESS
3. 71.3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
4. 71.4 OIL AND GAS REGULATION
5. 71.5 CONCLUSION
6. NOTES
72 ZERO DISCHARGE WATER MANAGEMENT FOR HORIZONTAL SHALE GAS WELL DEVELOPMENT
1. 72.1 CURRENT STATE OF TECHNOLOGY
2. 72.2 DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES
3. 72.3 FUTURE
4. REFERENCES
73 ABOUT OIL SHALE—WHAT IS OIL SHALE?
1. 73.1 WHAT IS OIL SHALE?
2. 73.2 OIL SHALE RESOURCES
3. 73.3 THE OIL SHALE INDUSTRY
4. 73.4 OIL SHALE MINING AND PROCESSING
5. 73.5 SURFACE RETORTING
6. 73.6 IN SITU RETORTING
7. REFERENCES
74 NATURAL GAS BASICS—HOW WAS NATURAL GAS FORMED?
1. 74.1 HOW DO WE GET NATURAL GAS?
2. 74.2 GETTING NATURAL GAS TO USERS
3. 74.3 WHAT IS LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS?
4. 74.4 WHERE OUR NATURAL GAS COMES FROM
5. 74.5 NATURAL GAS IMPORTS AND EXPORTS
6. 74.6 USES OF NATURAL GAS
7. 74.7 NATURAL GAS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
8. NOTES
75 NATURAL GAS—CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
1. 75.1 NATURAL GAS
76 ENERGY MINERAL DIVISION OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGISTS, SHALE GAS AND LIQUIDS COMMITTEE ANNUAL REPORT, FY 2014
1. INTRODUCTION
2. ANTRIM SHALE (DEVONIAN), MICHIGAN BASIN, USA
3. BAKKEN FORMATION (UPPER DEVONIAN–LOWER MISSISSIPPIAN), WILLISTON BASIN, USA
4. BARNETT SHALE (MISSISSIPPIAN), FORT WORTH BASIN, USA
5. EAGLE FORD SHALE AND TUSCALOOSA MARINE SHALE (CRETACEOUS), GULF COAST BASIN, USA
6. REFERENCES
7. FAYETTEVILLE SHALE (MISSISSIPPIAN), ARKOMA BASIN, USA
8. HAYNESVILLE/BOSSIER SHALE (JURASSIC), TEXAS AND LOUISIANA, USA
9. REFERENCES
10. MAQUOKETA AND NEW ALBANY SHALES, ILLINOIS BASIN
11. REFERENCES
12. MARCELLUS SHALE (DEVONIAN) – APPALACHIAN BASIN, USA
13. REFERENCES
14. NIOBRARA FORMATION (CRETACEOUS), ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION, USA
15. REFERENCES
16. UTAH SHALES, USA
17. REFERENCES
18. UTICA SHALE (ORDOVICIAN), APPALACHIAN BASIN, USA
19. REFERENCES
20. WOODFORD SHALE (LATE DEVONIAN-EARLY MISSISSIPPIAN), ANADARKO, ARKOMA, AND ARDMORE BASINS, USA
21. REFERENCES
22. CANADIAN SHALES
23. REFERENCES
24. SHALE GAS/SHALE OIL IN EUROPE
25. REFERENCES
26. APPENDIX 1.
27. APPENDIX 3
28. CHINA SHALE GAS AND SHALE OIL

INDEX

EULA

List of Tables

Introduction

Table I.1
Table I.2
Table I.3
Table I.4

Chapter 2

Table 2.1
Table 2.2
Table 2.3
Table 2.4
Table 2.5
Table 2.6

Chapter 5

Table 5.1
Table 5.2
Table 5.3
Table 5.4
Table 5.5
Table 5.6
Table 5.7
Table 5.8

Chapter 9

Table 9.1

Chapter 10

Table 10.1

Chapter 11

Table 11.1
Table 11.2
Table 11.3

Chapter 16

Table 16.1

Chapter 19

Table 19.1

Chapter 20

Table 20.1
Table 20.2
Table 20.3
Table 20.4
Table 20.5
Table 20.6

Chapter 26

Table 26.1
Table 26.2
Table 26.3

Chapter 27

Table 27.1

Chapter 28

Table 28.1
Table 28.2

Chapter 29

Table 29.1
Table 29.2
Table 29.3
Table 29.4
Table 29.5
Table 29.6
Table 29.7

Chapter 30

Table 30.1

Chapter 31

Table 31.1
Table 31.2
Table 31.3
Table 31.4

Chapter 33

Table 33.1
Table 33.2
Table 33.3
Table 33.4
Table 33.5
Table 33.6
Table 33.7
Table 33.8
Table 33.9
Table 33.10

Chapter 40

Table 40.1

Chapter 45

Table 45.1
Table 45.2
Table 45.3
Table 45.4

Chapter 50

Table 50.1
Table 50.2
Table 50.3
Table 50.4

Chapter 52

Table 52.1
Table 52.2
Table 52.3

Chapter 53

Table 53.1
Table 53.2

Chapter 59

Table 59.1
Table 59.2
Table 59.3
Table 59.4

Chapter 60

Table 60.1
Table 60.2
Table 60.3
Table 60.4
Table 60.5
Table 60.6
Table 60.7
Table 60.8
Table 60.9
Table 60.10
Table 60.11
Table 60.12
Table 60.13
Table 60.14
Table 60.15
Table 60.16

Chapter 61

Table 61.1
Table 61.2

Chapter 63

Table 63.1
Table 63.2
Table 63.3
Table 63.4
Table 63.5

Chapter 66

Table 66.1

Chapter 71

Table 71.1

Chapter 76

Table 76.1
Table 76.2
Table 76.3
Table 76.4
Table 76.5
Table 76.6
Table 76.7
Table 76.8

ALTERNATIVE ENERGY AND SHALE GAS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Edited by

JAY H. LEHR
Editor-in-Chief

JACK KEELEY
Senior Editor

THOMAS B. KINGERY
Information Technology

Edited by JAY H. LEHR Editor-in-Chief JACK KEELEY Senior Editor THOMAS B. KINGERY Information Technology

Edited by

JAY H. LEHR
Editor-in-Chief

JACK KEELEY
Senior Editor

THOMAS B. KINGERY
Information Technology