Faith, Power and Territory: A Handbook of British Islam
Published in the United States of America by Isaac Publishing
6729 Curran Street
McLean VA 22101
Copyright © 2015 Patrick Sookhdeo
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means electronic, photocopy or recording without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in brief quotations in written reviews.
ISBN 978-0-9916145-6-1
Printed in the United States
Contents
FOREWORD
PREFACE
INTRODUCTION
1 MUHAMMAD AND THE ORIGINS OF ISLAM
2 BEING A MUSLIM
3 RADICAL ISLAM (ISLAMISM)
4 BRITISH ISLAM
5 MUSLIM THINKERS SHAPING BRITISH ISLAM
6 MUSLIM ORGANISATIONS IN THE UK
7 ISLAMIC EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
8 ISLAMIC LEGAL INSTITUTIONS
9 ISLAMIC FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS
10 ISLAMIC CHARITIES
11 ISLAMIC MONITORING AND LOBBYING ORGANISATIONS
12 MUSLIM PERIODICALS IN ENGLISH
CONCLUSION
APPENDIX 1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SUNNI ISLAM
APPENDIX 2 MUSLIM BROTHERHOOD STRATEGY FOR NORTH AMERICA
GLOSSARY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
REFERENCES AND NOTES
INDEX
FOREWORD
In his latest book, Dr Sookhdeo sets out to raise awareness among the general public in Britain of key issues relating to the relationship between British Islam and the state. This is an important task, and the approach taken in this study is to be commended in wideranging ways.
Due recognition is given to the great diversity among Muslims in Britain, with an acknowledgement that the majority of British Muslims are decent and law-abiding. At the same time, Dr Sookhdeo notes that certain elements within the faith system of Islam serve to unite these disparate groups. Moreover, a process of gradual radicalisation is taking place, fuelled by certain theological doctrines as well as influences from other Muslim communities around the world.
Islam is much more than a set of religious beliefs and practices, relegated to one day per week for the faithful. Rather it is a blueprint for life in all its detail, covering diverse aspects of human living: faith, law, financial structures, social mores and much more. So the outworkings of the Muslim presence in Britain affect multiple dimensions of state and society. Dr Sookhdeo sets out to trace the nature of this complex Muslim presence in an accessible manner.
The relationship between Muslims and non-Muslims has been highly variable in recent years. On one level there has been great tension, resulting from and fuelled by the public transport attacks by Islamist radicals in July 2005 and similar abortive attacks more recently. On another level there has been some coming together of certain Muslims and non-Muslims, in an attempt to bridge bridges rather than walls.
Commentators have tended to focus on one or other of those levels, highlighting either the problems or the successes in intercommunity relationships. This present book manages to bridge the two in a way which is most helpful. There are causes for optimism in some ways regarding the relationship between Muslims and non-Muslims in Britain. At the same time, there are clear causes for concern, especially given the continuing threat to British society from Islamist radicals, accompanied by a subtle but discernible process of Islamisation taking place in certain segments of British education, law, media and so forth.
At this time there is a very clear struggle taking place within the British Muslim community to shape the future direction of the community. The participants in this struggle are summarised expertly in this book, with its focus on leading Muslim organisations and individuals, from diverse ideological and institutional streams.
The resolution of this struggle is vital for the future well-being of British society. I strongly affirm Dr Sookhdeo’s two-fold call: first to the British government and establishment not to engage in appeasement as a solution to inter-community problems; and second, to peaceful and progressive Muslims to take a strong and public stand against radicals, and to push for reform and reinterpretation of the fundamental ingredients of their faith to address any doctrines or teachings which provide sustenance to radical ideologies.
Professor Peter G. Riddell
London School of Theology
September 2007
PREFACE
The July 2005 London bombings awakened many to the reality of the growing threat of Islamic inspired terrorism in the United Kingdom, perpetrated by British Muslims. Many are confused as to why this should be happening and wonder from where the radical ideologies driving the terrorists emanate.
This book aims to give the general public a working understanding of Islam in Britain. It seeks to cover mainstream Islamic beliefs and practices as well as key opinion-formers and organisational and institutional structures. It highlights the variant ideologies and groups which are particulary important in the UK, and this includes radical Islamist organisations and ideologies. The book shows that modern radicalism, as seen in the UK, is rooted in an intolerant strand of early and classical Islam that has been carried through over the centuries in various forms. It has been strengthened in recent decades by the current global resurgence of Islam and in the UK by the development of multiculturalism amongst other factors.
Islam regards itself as not only a religious faith but also a political power. It has the tenets and practices of a faith, but these are inseparable from structural and institutional power in society. The title “Faith, Power and Territory” is intended to sum up the Muslim concept of their own religion and its application to the UK.
There is a dramatic numerical growth of Muslims in Britain, and their strong religious commitment is evident. How will this reshape a British society based originally on Judaeo-Christian foundations? Britain has evolved into a society shaped by civic institutions and in which great value is placed on the autonomy of the individual. As a result, the idea of a religion such as Islam shaping the structures of society is incredible and almost unintelligible to most indigenous Britons. Nevertheless some would see this development as positive in that, for the first time in centuries, religion is at the centre of society again. However the question of the effect of the presence of zealous Muslims in the UK needs very careful thought. This is particularly true at a time when Christianity is not only increasingly marginalised by pluralism, neutralised by secular humanism and riven by internal conflict but also in a state of serious decline in numbers and influence. The future character of the United Kingdom is uncertain. The dramatic changes that are taking place in culture and religion need to be noted. It is hoped that this handbook will help to give a degree of understanding of the situation and point to some of the issues which need to be addressed.
It is not the author’s intention to encourage or incite antipathy or hatred of any kind, but rather to promote understanding through knowledge.
INTRODUCTION
This handbook is intended to provide a framework of basic information on certain aspects of the Muslim community in the United Kingdom. On this can be hung the ever-changing controversies, issues, rhetoric and debates which engage both Muslims and non-Muslims at present. Although most Muslims in the UK are decent, law-abiding individuals whose primary focus is providing for their families, and who follow a traditional version of Islam, they are becoming subject to a process of radicalisation. This radicalisation is a worldwide phenomenon, as Islam increasingly returns to its roots in the form of classical Islam with its concomitant political dimensions. A main focus in this book will be contemporary ideologies, in particular those coming under the heading “radical” because it is radical Islam which has the greatest impact on the lives and situation of non-Muslims. However, it must always be recognised that there is a great diversity in British Islam, and that many Muslims have made very valuable contributions to British society, for example, in the fields of science, medicine, literature, architecture, economics and sport to name but a few. The government has rightly recognised some of these contributions through the award of honours.
Why being a minority poses problems for Muslims
Islam is unique among major world religions in its emphasis on state structures and governance, which are considered to be of as much importance as private belief and morality (if not more). Much of Islamic teaching is concerned with how to rule and organise society within an Islamic state and how that Islamic state should relate to other states.
The late Dr Zaki Badawi, president of the Muslim College in London, commented:
Muslims, from the start, lived under their own law. Muslim theologians naturally produced a theology with this in view – it is a theology of the majority. Being a minority was not seriously considered or even contemplated... Muslim theology offers, up to the present, no systematic formulation of the status of being a minority.1
Islam, which developed in a historical context of political and military dominance, has not evolved a theology of how Muslims should live as a minority i.e. in a society which is not ruled according to Islamic law. It is small wonder that British Islam is in a state of flux and internal discord as Muslims debate how they should live and behave in a non-Muslim society. While this debate obviously applies in many non-Muslim countries, it is particularly vigorous in the UK. In 1997 Abu’l A‘la Mawdudi’s famous work, Jihad fi Sabilillah (Jihad in Islam), which has shaped much of contemporary Islam, was re-printed in a fresh edition by the UK Islamic Mission Dawah Centre. It contains this paragraph about what will happen when Islam takes power in a non-Muslim nation:
as soon as the Ummah of Islam seizes state power, it will outlaw all forms of business transacted on the basis of usury or interest; it will not permit gambling; it will curb all forms of business and financial dealings which contravene Islamic Law; it will shut down all brothels and other dens of vice; it will make it obligatory for non-Muslim women to observe the minimum standards of modesty in dress as required by Islamic Law, and forbid them to go about displaying their beauty as in the Days of Ignorance; it will impose censorship on the film industry. With a view to ensuring the general welfare of the public and for reasons of self-defence, the Islamic government will not permit such cultural activities as may be permissible in non-Muslim systems but which Islam regards as detrimental and even fatal to moral fibre.2
What unites Muslims
Most Muslims would agree on the following three items as essential components of their Muslim identity.
1. Creed
The Islamic creed runs: “There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is his messenger.” This is understood to mean that Muhammad is the last and final messenger. It is usually recited in Arabic and is known as the shahada or kalimatu shahada. It is the first duty of every Muslim to affirm their faith with the words of the creed. Some Muslims believe that the mere recitation of these words is sufficient to convert a non-Muslim to Islam, even if there is no belief.
2. Shari‘a
(Islamic law)
Using the Qur’an and traditions (ahadith) of the life of Muhammad, early Islamic theologians and jurists produced detailed regulations to govern not only the private lives of individual Muslims but also the conduct of politics, economics, warfare, criminal justice, inheritance and family law, and many other aspects of communal life. The term shari‘a (literally “way” or “path”) is used to refer to this body of law. Most Muslims agree on the need to follow shari‘a.
3. Umma
The umma is the Islamic nation i.e. whole community of Islam, comprising all Muslim people. No matter how great the differences between Muslims, there is a virtually universal belief that they must support each other against non-Muslims.
What divides Muslims
Much of this handbook is devoted to describing different groups within Islam. Here are some broad categories.
Ethnic
Even in the days of Muhammad there was discrimination on the basis of birthplace and tribe, with his Meccan-born followers considered superior to those born in Medina, and his own tribe, the Quraish, the most dominant of all. Inter-ethnic conflict has continued throughout Islamic history, with Arab, Turk and Persian fighting each other. A phenomenon of our own times is the increasing dominance of Arab Islam over non-Arab Islam, for example, in Indonesia and Central Asia. The same can be seen in the UK where the Asian majority within the Muslim community is increasingly being influenced by the Arab minority. Tensions exist between Asians, Arabs, Africans, Caribbean converts and white converts. Mosques tend to become dominated by one particular ethnic group, although there are a few which are able to maintain an ethnic diversity.
Sectarian
Within twenty years of Muhammad’s death there was a huge and bloody leadership conflict which split the Muslim community into three groups. Two of these survive today as the Sunni and Shi‘a streams of Islam – still at war with each other in certain parts of the world. The conflict was rooted in theological differences about how the succession to the caliphate should be organised and who were therefore the legitimate successors to Muhammad’s authority.
Theology is the source of a surprisingly high proportion of the differences within Islam today. Even the unifying factors cited above can also be dividing factors:
• There are some sects who are not accepted as Islamic by other Muslims. One such is the Ahmadiyya, who were founded in the Punjab in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. They suffer severe persecution in Pakistan because of their belief in an ongoing prophethood after the death of Muhammad i.e. that Muhammad was not the final messenger of God (see page 179). The Ahmadiyya are of particular importance in the UK as they are very active here in proselytising.
• Shari‘a causes division because several competing versions of shari‘a exist, devised by different scholars of the eighth and ninth centuries AD. In the UK, where the majority of Muslims have roots in the Indian sub-continent, the most popular would be the Hanafi school of shari‘a. Another cause of division is the fact that the shari‘a has little to say about many modern situations in which Muslims may be unsure how to conduct themselves. Perplexed Muslims must turn to their twenty-first century leaders for guidance, and those leaders give a variety of different instructions, thus causing futher divisions.
It must be remembered that there is a growing number of completely secular Muslims, who do not practise their faith at all, and are Muslim only in culture. They are a hidden minority within the community and often unrepresented in discussions and debates.
Radical-traditional-liberal
This theological divide spans all the formal sects and groups within Islam. The question of how literally to take the original teachings of Islam is arguably the main subject of debate for British Muslims today. It is definitely an important Islamic issue for British non-Muslims.
Liberal Muslims are happy to adapt their faith to fit modern Western standards of human rights. (They are distinct from secular Muslims in that liberal Muslims do have a faith and will doubtless pray and observe various other religious practices.) Traditionalists accept Islam as it developed over its first centuries and became fixed by the schools of law. They do not accept innovations or new interpretations, and many may practise “folk Islam” and Sufism. Most reject secularism and Western culture. Radicals (also called Islamists, fundamentalists or extremists) consider themselves reformers who have returned to the basic teachings of Islam as it was in its pure, original form. They seek political domination of society and some are willing to use violence if necessary to achieve this. They reject secularism and Western culture even more forcefully than do the traditionalists.
• Loyalty to the umma becomes a divisive issue when it competes with loyalty to the UK as a citizen or resident. British Muslims are debating which of these two loyalties should be paramount.
Islam is the world’s second largest religion, with around 1.2 billion adherents worldwide.
Over 50 countries in the world are Muslim-majority, many acknowledging Islam as their state religion and the basis of their legal systems.
In the UK there are now some 3 million Muslims. This compares to 3 million in Germany and 5 million each in the United States and in France.
London has around 1 million Muslim residents. The next largest community is in Birmingham, which has approximately 150,000 Muslims. Over 50% of British Muslims were born in the UK.
The UK has over 5,000 Muslim millionaires.
The UK has at least:
1700 mosques (many with madrassas attached)
100 Muslim schools
1200 Muslim organisations
1 MUHAMMAD AND THE ORIGINS OF ISLAM
To understand British Islam, it is necessary to know what British Muslims believe. The traditional Muslim view of early Islamic history is based exclusively on Muslim sources, uncorroborated by any other evidence. The earliest of these Muslim sources were written some 150 years after the events they describe.
The following history of Muhammad and early Islam represents what Muslims believe about their early history as based on Muslim source texts. Western scholars hold a variety of opinions as to how accurate this is likely to be. The most important aspect of this era in Islamic history is that Muslims, through the centuries since, have always looked back on Muhammad as the perfect model of a human being and the Islamic state he founded in Medina as the perfect model of a state. Muhammad is seen as an example to be followed by Muslims today, and many Muslims would also seek to recreate an Islamic state as similar to his as possible. The time of the first four caliphs, Muhammad’s immediate successors as rulers of the Islamic state, is also particularly important in terms of providing a model for later Muslims to emulate. These four are known as the “rightly guided caliphs” and the period of their rule is seen as an early golden age of Islam.
In order to set the stage for what Muslims believe about their history, it is useful to look at the context of the Arabian Peninsula just before the advent of Islam. The Arabic-speaking tribes worshipped numerous gods. Honour and vengeance were important tribal values, and poetry was the main artistic accomplishment.
In Mecca, Muhammad’s home town, there was an important pagan shrine, the ka‘ba, a cube-shaped building that was said to house 360 idols of tribal patron deities. Built into the eastern corner of the ka‘ba was the “Black Stone”, said to have fallen from heaven. This was the site of an annual pilgrimage for tribes from all over Arabia.
There were several Jewish communities in Arabia as well as Christians. Pagan Arabs could thus gain some knowledge of Jewish and Christian scriptures and doctrines.
Arabia was situated between the two super-powers of the time, the Christian Byzantine Empire and the Zoroastrian Persian Empire, which were engaged in a long-running armed conflict with each other.
In later Muslim opinion, this pre-Islamic era was called the age of ignorance (jahiliyya), a byword for barbarism, immorality and idolatry. For most Muslims, “true” history begins with the advent of Islam, and they have little interest in anything that happened before.
MUHAMMAD (570–632 AD)
According to Muslim sources, Muhammad was born around 570 AD in the prosperous trading town of Mecca to a poor family of the respected Quraish tribe that had custody of the ka‘ba. His father had died before his birth and his mother when he was six, leaving him in the care of his grandfather who died two years later. Muhammad was then brought up by an uncle who took him on long trading caravan trips to Syria.
As a young man Muhammad found employment with a rich widow, Khadija, who was fifteen years his senior. They were married when he was 25. They had seven children, but all three of their sons died young. Of the daughters who survived, Fatima is the most famous. She married Muhammad’s cousin Ali. After 25 years of marriage, Khadija died and Muhammad subsequently married a further twelve wives.
The birth of Islam
Muhammad used to spend time meditating in a mountain cave near Mecca. At the age of 40, while on such a retreat, Muslims believe that he had a vision of the angel Gabriel, who gave Muhammad the first in a long series of messages which he was commanded to preach to mankind. These messages were later collected by his followers as the Qur’an. Khadija became his first disciple and set aside any doubts he had as to the authenticity of the visions. However, most Meccans rejected his teaching, and their growing hostility led to a violent persecution of the small band of Muslims. In 622 Muhammad and his followers moved to the city of Yathrib (later called Medina) whose inhabitants were more favourably disposed to his message. The migration to Medina is called the hijra, and serves as an important paradigm for some Muslims today in their relations with non-Muslims.
Muhammad was able to unite the various factions in Medina and lead them in battle against his Meccan enemies. In Medina he was no longer a mere preacher, but became the head of state – its ruler, lawgiver, supreme judge and military commander. After much fighting, the Meccans eventually surrendered to the Muslims and Muhammad entered Mecca victoriously, destroyed the idols in the ka‘ba, and turned it into the centre of his new religion, Islam. (Muslims, of course, believe that theirs is not a new religion but a continuation of the revelations given to Adam, Abraham and Jesus.)
The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)
Because of the great respect and veneration Muslims bear Muhammad, Muslims always refer to him as the “Prophet Muhammad”. ‘Peace be Upon Him’, abbreviated as (PBUH), normally follows any mention of him in English. Sometimes SAS or SAW is added instead, being the abbreviation for the equivalent Arabic phrase (sala Allah ‘alayhi wa sallam, literally “God prayed over him and gave him peace”). Sometimes this is written in Arabic even if the rest of the text is in English.
Controversies with Jews and Christians
Muhammad had initially recognised the validity of Judaism and Christianity. After moving to Medina, he gradually turned against his Jewish allies who would not accept his claims to being a prophet of the one true God nor practise the new religious customs he initiated. This friction with Jews, and later with various Christian communities, confirmed to him the absolute superiority of Islam. Muhammad fought the Jewish tribes, massacred many of their men, enslaved many of their women and children, and expelled others from their lands. His hardening of attitude to Jews and Christians is clearly seen within the Qur’an, whose earlier verses are much more peaceable than its later verses.
MUHAMMAD’S DEATH AND THE EARLY EXPANSION OF ISLAM
By the time Muhammad died in 632 virtually the whole of the Arabian peninsula was under at least some degree of Islamic control. Under Muhammad’s successor, Caliph Abu Bakr, control of the peninsula was consolidated and Muhammad’s plans to conquer the neighbouring lands of the Byzantine Empire were implemented. After Abu Bakr the same pattern continued, as large parts of both the Byzantine Empire and the Persian Empire were subdued in what the Muslims called holy war, jihad. There was also a large-scale emigration of Arab Muslims into the newly conquered regions, following Muhammad’s example of migration to Medina and in order to facilitate political domination.
The four “rightly-guided” caliphs
Abu Bakr 632–634 (died of natural causes)
‘Umar 634–644 (assassinated)
‘Uthman 644–656 (assassinated)
‘Ali 656–661 (assassinated)
CIVIL WAR AND DIVISION
Although the four “rightly guided” caliphs were all trusted friends of Muhammad, there was very far from being a consensus within the Muslim community about their right to succeed him as supreme leader. Some claimed that Muhammad had designated only ‘Ali, his cousin and son-in-law, to be his successor. By 656 tensions came to a head in a civil war within the umma. The war continued until 661 when ‘Ali was assassinated and Mu‘awiya (head of ‘Uthman’s clan, the Umayyads) was established as caliph with his capital in Damascus. The umma was split and remains so to this day.
The Shi‘a
The Shi‘a, who today comprise 10–20% of all Muslims, believe that ‘Ali and his male descendants are the legal successors to Muhammad who should rule the Muslim world.
‘Ali’s son Hussein attempted to regain the caliphate from Mu‘awiya’s son Yazid. However he and his small band of followers were killed by Yazid’s army near Karbala in Iraq in 680. The martyrdom of Hussein became a dominant theme in Shi‘a doctrine, and Karbala a place of pilgrimage.
The Shi’a today constitute the majority in Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan and Bahrain. They form significant minorities in Yemen, Lebanon, the Gulf, and the Indian subcontinent. Since the initial break from the rest of the Muslim community, Shi’as have continued to splinter into ever more groups over the question of legitimate succession between various eligible brothers. The largest group are the Twelvers (or Imamites), dominant in Iran and numerous in Iraq, Lebanon, the Gulf and Pakistan. They recognise twelve Imams of the house of ‘Ali, the last one having disappeared in the ninth century. Twelvers believe that this last Imam, the Hidden Imam, will return one day as the saviour (mahdi) to establish God’s kingdom on earth. Other groups are the Zaydis (Fivers) who ruled Yemen for many centuries, and the Isma‘ilis (Seveners) who established the Fatimid Empire in Egypt, but are now a scattered minority led mainly by the Agha Khan. In Turkey there is a significant Shi‘a minority, the Alevis, comprising some 25% of the Turkish population, who revere ‘Ali as an incarnation of God.
The Kharijis
The Kharijis rejected both Sunni and Shi‘a claims, arguing that the position of caliph should be open to any suitable Muslim who was pious enough, irrespective of his (or her) lineage. They believed that those who opposed them were not true Muslims and therefore had to be fought and killed. It was a Khariji who assassinated Caliph ‘Ali. The Kharijis rebelled against the Sunni majority almost constantly for two centuries and were finally exterminated. Tiny remnants, now peaceful and called the Ibadis, have survived in Oman, east Africa and southern Algeria.
The Sunnis
The main body of Muslims – those who did not split away to become Shi’as or Kharijis – are now known as Sunnis. They constitute at least 80% of the Muslim community today. The Sunnis accept the historical sequence of the first four caliphs and their successors as legitimate. Their position was that any suitable person from the Quraish tribe could be elected as caliph. Sunni empires and states have dominated the Muslim world throughout its history.
FURTHER EXPANSION AND CONQUEST
Notwithstanding this internal conflict, the Islamic conquest of the non-Muslim world continued. By 750 the Muslim empire stretched from Spain and Morocco in the west to India and the borders of China in the east. Many who would not accept Islam were killed or enslaved and huge tracts of land confiscated for the Islamic state and the Arab settlers. The success of this early jihad is considered by Muslims to be miraculous, confirming that God had destined Islam to rule the world.
The conquered subjects entered a long period of Muslim domination. As non-Muslims they had reduced rights within the Islamic state, and this led gradually to large-scale conversions to Islam, which eventually became the majority religion. In Palestine, Syria, Iraq and North Africa there was also a parallel process of Arabisation, as local ethnic and linguistic identities (Coptic, Syriac, Berber) were submerged into an overarching Arabic identity.
For further information
For further information on early Islam, the reader is referred to:
Bernard Lewis, The Middle East: 2,000 Years of History from the Rise of Christianity to the Present Day new edition (London: Orion Publishing, 2001)
Bat Ye’or, The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians Under Islam, revised and enlarged edition (London: Associated University Presses, 1985)
Bat Ye’or, The Decline of Eastern Christianity under Islam: From Islam to Dhimmitude (Cranbury, New Jersey / London: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press and Associated University Presses, 1996)
Patrick Sookhdeo, Global Jihad: The Future in the Face of Militant Islam (McLean, Virginia: Isaac Publishing, 2007)
2 BEING A MUSLIM
This chapter aims to help the non-Muslim reader understand something of how a British Muslim might live out his or her faith. There is a vast range of beliefs, interpretations and levels of zeal, not to mention ethnic differences, but in spite of that there is a basic core of beliefs and practices which all Muslims (bar the most secular) would acknowledge as intrinsic to their faith. Having examined the common threads of belief and practice, the chapter goes on to look at three variations on this theme which are particularly relevant in the UK. It ends with the problem of loyalty, one of the main dilemmas facing Muslims living in the UK today.
BASIC CORE OF ISLAMIC BELIEFS AND PRACTICE
Islam demands faith in its doctrines and practice of its rituals. It is based on several powerfully unifying core elements, which would be accepted by all Muslims in the UK, as well as around the world. The most important among these are:
• One God
• One final prophet – Muhammad
• One final revelation – the Qur’an
• One law for all – the shari‘a
• One perfect model – Muhammad
• One people of God – the umma
More formally, Islam lists six articles of faith and five (or six) obligatory duties.
Six articles of faith
1. God: Muslims believe in the absolute unity of God who has no partners or associates, is all powerful and beyond man’s understanding.
2. Angels: God’s supernatural messengers, who watch over humans and record their good and bad deeds.
3. Holy books: The Torah, the Psalms, the Gospels and the Qur’an. Muslims believe the first three have been changed and distorted by Jews and Christians so only the Qur’an is reliable and binding.
4. Prophets: Muslims revere a vast range of prophets, incoluding Abraham, Moses and Jesus. Muhammad, however, is the greatest prophet, the last and the best. He is the perfect example for humanity to follow.
5. The day of judgement and the resurrection: Following catastrophic signs, there will be a resurrection and a final day of judgement in which God will send the wicked to hell and the good to paradise. (See box on Islamic eschatology, page 16.)
6. Predestination: God in his sovereignty has decreed all things. Man’s duty is to submit to God’s will.
Five obligatory duties (“pillars of religion”)
1. Frequent recitation of the basic creed (shahada or kalimatu shahada): “There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his messenger.”
2. Ritual prayers (salat) at the five appointed daily times, accompanied by ceremonial washings and postures.
3. Fasting (sawm) daily from sunrise to sunset during the month of Ramadan. During the fast Muslims abstain from food, drink, sexual relations and smoking.
4. The giving of alms (zakat) to the poor in proportion to one’s wealth. (For a full description of what zakat can be used for, see the glossary entry on zakat.)
5. The pilgrimage (haj) to Mecca at least once in a lifetime for those in good health who can afford it.
Some Muslims add holy war (jihad) as a sixth pillar.
Islamic eschatology
Classical Islamic eschatology predicted a period of great cosmic conflict preceding the final judgement. This tribulation period is characterised by natural catastrophes as well as terrible wars. An Antichrist figure (Dajjal) appears who causes corruption and oppression all over the world, deceiving many by his miracles and false teachings. A heaven-sent saviour, the mahdi then appears to fight the forces of Satan, restore Islam to its original perfection and glory, and set up God’s kingdom on earth. Muslims in all traditions await the mahdi deliverer, but the mahdi concept is especially important for the Shi’a. They believe that their last Imam did not die, but is now in a supernatural state of occultation (i.e. hidden) from which he will return as the mahdi to initiate a period of universal peace, justice and prosperity in which all humanity accepts Islam. In the meantime, believers undergo a period of trials and testing in which they are called to watch for the “signs of the times” as revealed in the apocalyptic prophecies.
Self-proclaimed mahdis have arisen all over the Muslim world throughout its history, posing a danger to established rulers who tended to suppress them as causing fitna (civil unrest). Self-proclaimed mahdis also led resistance movements to Western imperialism in the nineteenth century. Mahdism is thus a concept with great mobilising powers for Muslims at all times, but especially in times of crisis and weakness.
Da‘wa (Islamic mission)
Islam is a missionary religion and all Muslims have a God-given duty to witness to their faith and win converts.3 Shamim A. Siddiqi sets out in Methodology of Dawah Ilallah in American Perspective some detailed guidance on how to engage in da’wa in the USA. For example, he describes how to use interfaith dialogue as a stage towards the conversion of the non-Muslim participants in the dialogue.
Through Contacts with Churches, Synagagues, Colleges and Universities … The I.M.O.A. [Islamic Movement of America] will open dialogues with dignitaries of the religious institutions, presenting Islam as the common legacy of Judeo-Christian religions and as the only Guidance now available to mankind in its most perfect form for its Falah (Deliverance and Salvation). … The religious dignitaries and learned teachers of Universities and colleges will also be invited to speak in the arranged open Dawah programme of the Movement on various issues and topics of common interest. … This will give an opportunity to the Da‘ee to thrash out the issue and bring the dicsussion to the desired conclusion. These dialogues, speeches and discussions will pave the way in reducing their hard-line stand against Islam.4
Islamic da‘wa (literally “call”) however goes beyond merely proclaiming the Islamic faith and gaining individual converts. It is seen as a communal responsibility aimed at extending the political and legal domain of Islam at the expense of all “unbelievers” (kuffar). In this respect it is linked to jihad. A recent document produced by the Dutch intelligence service recognises the link between da‘wa and jihad.5 It is also instructive to see how Muslim charitable giving can go to finance jihad and da‘wa as well as helping the poor. (See glossary entry on zakat for the Qur’anic basis of this.)
Da‘wa is often misunderstood in the West, being viewed as equivalent to Christian evangelism. But it is important to realise that it is a means by which the Islamic state is created. Da‘wa includes the academic, financial, legal and all other aspects of society. It aims not only to save the soul but to save the society as well. For many of the da‘wa organisations (including Islamic aid agencies) which are not necessarily regarded as extremist, the aim of creating an Islamic state is nevertheless central to their philosophy and they continue to seek to fulfil this agenda. Many Muslim activities have a da‘wa element, for example the annual open day at the Madina Mosque, Keighley, West Yorkshire, which the whole town is invited to attend.6 Likewise the annual national Islam Awareness Week, whose stated aim is “to raise awareness and remove misconceptions surrounding Britain’s second largest faith group” provides a non-threatening way of spreading the message of Islam to non-Muslims.7
The Qur’an
The Qur’an is believed to be the literal word of God, revealed to Muhammad in stages over a period of 23 years by the angel Gabriel. It is considered an exact copy of the heavenly, uncreated original inscribed on a tablet in heaven. The Qur’an is seen as incomparable to any human writing, a divine miracle. Most Muslims accept this view of the divine origin and perfection of the Qur’an and react with anger at any criticism of it. It is treated with great reverence, and is memorised and recited by many. Most Muslims refuse to countenance any kind of historical, contextual, archaeological or literary analysis of their holy book, so the Qur’an is rarely given the same rigorous scholarly treatment as the Bible gets. This approach (which is enforced by law in some Muslim countries) is generally followed by non-Muslim academics and media in the UK as well; this results in the Qur’an being effectively immune from criticism or any critical analysis, in stark contrast to the way the Bible is treated.
The Qur’an is written in poetic form. It contains 114 chapters (suras) which are not arranged chronologically but mainly in order of length. It contains many contradictions which Islamic scholars cope with by applying the principle of abrogation. In its commonest form this principle states that where two texts conflict, the later-dated one abrogates (cancels) the earlier one.
There was no definitive version of the Qur’an when Muhammad died, but the various parts were gradually collected and collated in different places resulting in several different versions. Most variations were destroyed at the promulgation of an official version in the 650s during Caliph ‘Uthman’s reign. This fact is not widely known by Muslims, most of whom believe that there has only ever been one version of the Qur’an.
English translations of the Qur’an
There are a growing number of Qur’an translations in English (and other languages) to meet the needs of the 80% of Muslims who do not understand Arabic and for the propagation of Islam. Because Muslims view the Arabic original as the only revealed word of God, translations are viewed as merely attempts to give the meaning of the original, without the possibility of attaining to its perfection. One of the complications when studying the Qur’an in English is that the numbering of the verses can vary slightly from one translation to another. So a certain phrase found in sura (chapter) 8 verse 60 in one translation might be found at, say, 8:59 or 8:62 in another translation.
While a few translators attempt an exact objective translation of the original, this is a very difficult task because of the ambiguity of the original Arabic. It is perhaps hardly surprising that many translators use interpolations in the text (shown in parentheses), footnotes, introductions and appendices to explain the meaning. This methodology can be used to convey a particular sectarian interpretation as well as include the interpretation of orthodox medieval scholars. Translations funded by Saudi Arabia are especially prone to inserting ideological and political annotations.
Example: The Saudi-financed translation, Interpretation of the Meanings of The Noble Qur’an in the English Language: A summarized Version of At-Tabari, Al-Qurtubi and Ibn Kathir with comments from Sahih Al-Bukhari by Dr Muhammad Taqi ud-Din al-Hilali and Dr Muhammad Muhsin Khan, 15th edition, Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers, 1996.
This Sunni translation is meant to replace the popular translation by the Shi‘a Muslim A. Yusuf Ali and has been approved by both the University of Medina and the Saudi Dar al-Ifta (Centre for shari‘a-based decrees). It is now the most widely disseminated English Qur’an. Its doctrinal interpretation is based on the commentaries of al-Tabari (d. 932), al-Qurtubi (d. 1273), Ibn Kathir (d.1372) and al-Bukhari (d. 870) as well as on a strict Wahhabi-Salafi worldview.
Many of its interpolations have an anti-Christian and anti-Semitic tendency. One clear example of this occurs in the first sura which is recited seventeen times a day by all Muslims who pray five times a day.
Surah Al-Fatihah
1. In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.
2. All the praises and thanks be to Allâh, the Lord of the ‘Alamîn (mankind, jinn and all that exists).
3. The Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.
4. The Only Owner (and the Only Ruling Judge) of the Day of Recompense (i.e. the Day of Resurrection)
5. You (Alone) we worship, and You (Alone) we ask for help (for each and everything).
6. Guide us to the Straight Way
7. The Way of those on whom You have bestowed Your Grace, not (the way) of those who earned Your Anger (such as the Jews) nor of those who went astray (such as the Christians).
The sections of text in brackets are interpolations which do not occur in the original Arabic, but have been derived from the hadith. Note how the additions to verse 7 serve to reinforce a negative attitude towards Jews and Christians.
A footnote to 2:190 explains that jihad is a “pillar” of Islam, i.e. an obligatory duty (see pages 15–16), although this is not by any means a universal understanding within Islam. The footnote also makes clear that jihad means physical fighting and warfare, although the term jihad includes at least three other meanings accepted by most Muslims.
Al-Jihad (holy fighting) in Allah’s Cause (with full force of numbers and weaponry) is given the utmost importance in Islam and is one of its pillars (on which it stands). By Jihad Islam is established, Allah’s Word is made superior, (his Word being La ilaha illalah which means none has the right to be worshipped but Allah), and his religion (Islam) is propagated. By abandoning Jihad (may Allah protect us from that) Islam is destroyed and the Muslims fall into an inferior position; their honour is lost, their lands are stolen, their rule and authority vanish. Jihad is an obligatory duty on every Muslim, and he who tries to escape from this duty, or does not in his innermost heart wish to fulfil this duty, dies with one of the qualities of a hypocrite.
Some editions of this version also have an appendix about jihad written by the Chief Justice of Saudi Arabia, Sheikh ‘Abdullah bin Muhammad bin Humaid. This appendix glorifies jihad in its traditional understanding as a holy war for the supremacy of Islam.8
Hadith
Various collections have also been made of traditions (ahadith, singular hadith) recording what Muhammad said and did i.e. his way of life (sunna). They were preserved verbally for some generations, each with its own chain of names who had passed the tradition on from one to another, and later written down. According to Sunni Muslims, six such collections are considered authoritative, and are viewed as a revelation second only to the Qur’an as a source of divine guidance. These are the collections of Bukhari, Muslim, Ibn Majah, Abu Da’ud, Tirmidhi and Nasa’i. In addition, the Shi‘a have their own collections which include sayings of their imams in addition to those of Muhammad. Four canonical Shi‘a hadith collections are Muhammad ibn Ya’qub al-Kulayni (d. 490), Usul al-Kafi fi ‘ilm al-din; Ibn Babawayh al-Qummi (d. 991), Man la yahduruhu’l faqih; and Muhammad al-Tusi (d. 1068) (two collections) 1. Tahdib al-ahkam, 2. alistibsar.
Because the ahadith are often easier to understand than the Qur’an, they have played a very important role in establishing the rules of how Muslims should live, based on the model of Muhammad. For example, the Qur’an enjoins Muslims to pray, but it is from the ahadith that Muslims know how often they must pray, what times of day to pray, and in what manner to pray.
Islamic law (shari‘a)
Islam includes a body of detailed legislation called the shari‘a which provides instructions for Muslims in every aspect of private and public life. It is like the constitution of the Muslim community, as well as an identity marker separating Muslims from non-Muslims. For most Muslims, shari‘a is the embodiment of God’s will. Most Sunni Muslims believe that it can never be changed from what was agreed in the tenth century AD.
The shari‘a tries to describe in detail all possible human activities, dividing them into permissible (halal) and prohibited (haram), and subdividing them into various degrees of good or evil such as obligatory, recommended, neutral, objectionable or forbidden. Shari‘a regulates in detail all matters of devotional life, ritual purity, marriage and inheritance, criminal offences, commerce and the governing of the Islamic state. It also regulates relations to non-Muslims within the Muslim state as well as to enemies outside it.
The shari‘a is derived from the Qur’an and hadith. Using the same sources, different medieval scholars and jurists came up with slightly different versions and these were enshrined in the various schools of law. The Sunni schools of law are named after their founders: the Hanafi, Shafi‘i, Maliki and Hanbali. The Twelver Shi‘a have their own school of law. As an example, all schools of shari‘a agree that a sane adult male Muslim who leaves the faith should be killed (unless he repents) but they differ in what should happen to an apostate woman or child. (See table on page 24.)
Some of the implications of the shari‘a for life in the UK are discussed in chapter 4.
The veneration of Muhammad
Most Muslims affirm that Muhammad was simply a human channel for God’s revelation. At the same time, Muhammad’s figure towers over Islam not just as its founder, but as the perfect man who was divinely inspired not only in his Qur’anic recitations, but in all his sayings and deeds (which included leading his people into battle).
Shari’a, fiqh, ijtihad and fatwas
Shari‘a is seen as the divinely ordained law of Islam. It is God’s revealed will for human conduct, the fundamental basic legal code, the heavenly ideal. In this sense shari’a is eternally valid and unchangeable.
Fiqh is Islamic jurisprudence, the human activity of interpreting and applying shari‘a in specific cases. Fiqh is therefore open to some change and adaptation to changing contexts.
Ijtihad is the process of logical deduction in which an individual scholar engages in order to produce a new legal opinion. In orthodox Sunni Islam this process has been forbidden since the tenth century, when it was ruled that all necessary ijtihad had been completed. Some reformers assert that ijtihad is now possible again.
A fatwa is an authoritative legal opinion given by a mufti (legal scholar authorised to issue fatwas), usually in response to questions posed by individuals or courts. The degree of authority of the fatwa is based on the mufti’s status and reputation.
He is the beloved of God who serves as the supreme example which all Muslims are obliged to emulate in every small detail. Muhammad is also seen as the intercessor with God who can change the divine decrees and admit to paradise those for whom he intercedes.
Love for Muhammad (and his family) is deeply inculcated into most Muslims in childhood. Protecting his honour from any assault is an obligation on all. This is why any suspected denigration of Muhammad immediately creates disturbances and riots in many Muslim countries and communities. It is classed as blasphemy and deserves the death sentence, as Salman Rushdie experienced after his book The Satanic Verses was published.
The elevation of Muhammad to what is effectively a position of sinless infallibility has served to turn his human weaknesses into virtues to be imitated. This remains one of the unresolved problems of Islam.
The punishment of apostates from Islam, according to the five main schools of shari‘a
Muhammad veneration is particularly marked amongst South Asian Muslims and therefore is also a major feature of the Muslim community in the UK as most British Muslims have roots in the Indian sub-continent.
SOME VARIATIONS
Islamic mysticism (Sufism)
Sufism is the mystical stream of Islam which arose as a reaction to the rigid legalism of the early religious establishment and as a protest at the growing worldliness and wealth of the expanding Muslim empire. Sufis searched for a personal experience of God and his love. They hoped to achieve this by finding secret hidden (batini) meanings in the Qur’an and by disciplines of fasting, prayer, repetition of God’s names, breath control, meditation and trance.
Founders of Sufi orders and their successors are venerated as saints who possess powers of intercession and blessing (baraka). Their tombs serve as centres of pilgrimage. Sufi saints are known as sheikhs in the Arab world and as pirs in the Iranian, Turkic and Indian worlds.
The sheikh of each order, as the successor of the original founder, teaches his disciples and performs with them the Sufi rituals. His help is sought for matters such as exorcism and healing.
Sufi concepts permeate Islam and were important in the development of Muslim culture and in da‘wa,
