Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Preface

Chapter 1: Fundamental Concepts

Simple Food Chain Theory
Food Webs
Food Webs and Ecosystem Stability
References

Chapter 2: Photosynthesis

Light Limitation of Photosynthesis
Nutrient Limitation of Photosynthesis
References

Chapter 3: Physical Factors Affecting Production

Physical Properties of Water
Water Column Stability and Overturning
Seasonal Production Cycles
Trophic Status
Susceptibility of Systems to Oxygen Depletion
Estuaries: A Special Case
Chesapeake Bay
The Gulf of Mexico Hypoxic Zone
References

Chapter 4: Cultural Eutrophication Case Studies

Case Study 1: Lake Washington
Case Study 2: Lake Erie
Case Study 3: Kaneohe Bay
References

Chapter 5: Nonpoint Source Pollution

Definitions
Composition of Land Runoff
Types of Sewer Systems
Corrective Measures
A Case Study: Lake Jackson, Florida
References

Chapter 6: Sewage Treatment

Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Treatment
Land Application of Sewage
Unconventional Sewage Treatment
Detergent Phosphates
References

Chapter 7: Pathogens in Natural Waters

Sources of Pathogens
Types of Pathogens and Their Detection
Tests for Pathogens
Treatment of Public Water Supplies
References

Chapter 8: Toxicology

The Role of Toxicology in Water Quality Management
Kinds of Toxicity
Determination of Toxicity
Water Quality Standards
The Two-Number Criterion
Complicating Factors
Public Health
Protection of Wildlife
Commentary
References

Chapter 9: Industrial Pollution

The Oxygen Sag
Innovative Strategies for Reducing Industrial Pollution
The Hawaiian Sugar Cane Industry
The Pulp and Paper Industry
A Case Study: The Buckeye Cellulose Corporation Pulp and Paper Mill at Perry, Florida
Commentary
References

Chapter 10: Pesticides and Persistent Organic Pollutants

Classification of Pesticides
Pesticide Use
Pesticide Effects on Nontarget Species
Exaggerated and/or Erroneous Charges against Pesticide Use
Pesticide Persistence in the Biosphere and Food Chain Magnification
Pesticide Effects on Birds
Pest Resistance
Alternatives to Synthetic Pesticide Use
Commentary
Persistent Organic Pollutants
Polychlorinated Biphenyls
References

Chapter 11: Thermal Pollution and Power Plants

Power Plant Design
Toxic Effects of Effluent Waters on Biota
A Case Study – The Florida Power and Light Power Plant at Turkey Point
Correctives
Internal Plant Kills
References

Chapter 12: Metals

The Question of Biological Magnification
Case Studies
References

Chapter 13: Oil Pollution

Oil Discharges to the Marine Environment
The Genesis of Oil
What Is Oil?
Toxicology
Case Studies
Correctives
Commentary
References

Chapter 14: Radioactivity

Physical Background
Radiation Toxicology
Nuclear Fission and Fission Reactors
Nuclear Fusion
Radiation Releases by Power Plants
Commentary
References

Chapter 15: Acid Deposition and Ocean Acidification

Acid Deposition
Acid Rain
History of the Acid Deposition Problem
Susceptibility of Lakes to Acid Deposition Effects
Acid Deposition Toxicology
Magnitude of Anthropogenic Emissions
Correctives
NO_x Removal
Legal Aspects
A Case Study: The Netherlands
Commentary
Ocean Acidification
References

Chapter 16: Groundwater Pollution

Reliance on Groundwater
The Extent of Groundwater Pollution
A Case Study: The Rocky Mountain Arsenal
Legal Considerations
Correctives
References

Chapter 17: Plastics in the Sea

The Nature of the Problem
Effects
References

Units of Measurement and Abbreviations

Reference

Aquatic Pollution

References

Glossary

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1: Fundamental Concepts

Figure 1.1 Diagram of a food chain through trophic level four.
Figure 1.2 Trophic level biomass through trophic level four in a hypothetical food chain.
Figure 1.3 Biomass of plants and herbivores during spring and early summer in a hypothetical temperate aquatic ecosystem.
Figure 1.4 Box model of the grazing and detritus food chains and the interactions between the two food chains. Solid lines represent feeding relationships. Dashed lines represent excretion.
Figure 1.5 Box model of the detritus food chain leading to the carnivore trophic level of the grazing food chain. The gray shaded boxes constitute the microbial loop.
Figure 1.6 Diagram of the feeding relationships in a small stream community in South Wales.

Chapter 2: Photosynthesis

Figure 2.1 Variation of visible light intensity with depth in a hypothetical body of water.
Figure 2.2 Relationship between gross photosynthesis, net community production, and depth in a well-mixed body of water. Average net community production is zero above the critical depth.
Figure 2.3 Relationship between benthic plant dominance and phytoplankton dominance as a function of nutrient concentrations and turbidity. Benthic plants dominate below the lower curve, and phytoplankton dominate above the upper curve. The transition from benthic plants to phytoplankton occurs along the dashed line labeled A, and the transition from phytoplankton to benthic plant dominance occurs along the dashed line labeled B. Transitions A and B are effectively one-way streets.
Figure 2.4 Single- and multiple-nutrient enrichment experiments and interpretation of results.
Figure 2.5 Shellfishing areas affected by duck farm wastes along the south shore of Long Island. Solid blocks along tributary streams indicate duck farms in 1966. Hatched regions indicate shellfishing areas. Lightly hatched shellfishing areas were closed to shellfishing due to pathogen contamination.
Figure 2.6 Cell counts after a 1-week incubation in nutrient enrichment flasks at indicated stations. At each station, the left-hand, middle, and right-hand vertical bars represent the N-enriched flask, the P-enriched flask, and the control flask, respectively. Stations 2, 4, and 5 were located in Great South Bay; station 11 was located between Great South Bay and Moriches Bay; stations 15, 19, and 21 were located in Moriches Bay; and station 30 was located in the Forge River.

Chapter 3: Physical Factors Affecting Production

Figure 3.1 Simple chemical representation of a water molecule. Lines between the oxygen atom (O) and each hydrogen atom (H) represent electron-pair bonds, which hold the atoms in the molecule together. δ⁺ and δ⁻ signs indicate partial polarization of charge.
Figure 3.2 Hexagonal arrangement of water molecules in ice. Each hydrogen atom is joined by an electron-pair bond to the nearest oxygen atom and by a hydrogen bond to the next closest oxygen atom.
Figure 3.3 Qualitative arrangement of water molecules around a positive sodium (Na⁺) ion and a negative chlorine (Cl⁻) ion. Note that the negative (oxygen) end of the water molecule is closest to the positive Na⁺, while the positive (hydrogen) end of the water molecule is closest to the negative Cl⁻.
Figure 3.4 Variation of temperature with depth in a thermally stable marine water column or in a stable column of freshwater in which the temperature is everywhere >4 °C.
Figure 3.5 Variation of temperature with depth in a thermally stable freshwater system in which the temperature is everywhere <4 °C.
Figure 3.6 Temperature profiles in a hypothetical freshwater lake in a temperate climate from the end of summer (right-hand side) until the end of winter (left-hand side).
Figure 3.7 Simplified estuarine circulation pattern.
Figure 3.8 Profile of a salt wedge estuary.
Figure 3.9 Cycling of nutrients and organic matter in a typical estuary.
Figure 3.10 Chesapeake Bay and its major tributary streams.
Figure 3.11 (a) Area of the bottom of the Chesapeake Bay covered by benthic grasses. The dashed line is the interim goal of 750 km² that was established in 2003. (b) Commercial catch of blue crabs. (c) Commercial catch of menhaden. (d) Commercial catch of striped bass.
Figure 3.12 (a) Commercial harvest of eastern oysters from the Chesapeake Bay. (b) Percentage of water quality standards met by Bay waters. (c) Percentage of partially or totally impaired water quality segments as a result of toxic chemicals. (d) Percentage of the watershed covered by forests.
Figure 3.13 Loading of N and P to the Chesapeake Bay at monitoring sites. (a) Susquehanna River average TN loading from January to May, (b) annual TP loading from James River at Cartersville, VA, (c) annual TN loading of Choptank River at Greensboro, MD, and (d) annual TP loading of Choptank River at Greensboro, MD. The slopes of the straight lines in panels (b)–(d) are significant at p < 0.05. In panel (a), the curvature is significant at p < 0.05.
Figure 3.14 Volume of hypoxic water in the Chesapeake Bay from 1950 to 2013. The dashed curve is a second-order polynomial fit to the data.
Figure 3.15 Discharge of freshwater by streams into the Chesapeake Bay. Data are median values during 11-year intervals from 1937 to 2013. Error bars are median absolute deviations.
Figure 3.16 (a) Area of the Gulf of Mexico hypoxic zone from 1985 to 2011. (b) Volume of the Gulf of Mexico hypoxic zone. (c) Relationship between the area and volume of the hypoxic zone. (d) April–June flow weighted nitrate concentrations in the Mississippi River from 1980 to 2011.
Figure 3.17 Commercial catches by Louisiana fishermen of (a) menhaden, (b) oysters, (c) blue crabs, and (d) white and brown shrimp.

Chapter 4: Cultural Eutrophication Case Studies

Figure 4.1 Lake Washington and surrounding area. Hatching indicates urbanized areas.
Figure 4.2 Changes in Lake Washington between 1933 and 1997. (a) Mean July–August Secchi depth. (b) Annual loading of dissolved P and wastewater P to the lake. (c) Mean July–August chlorophyll a in top 10 m. (d) Mean phosphate-P and nitrate-N during January–March.
Figure 4.4 Seasonal changes in phosphate and nitrate in Lake Washington surface water. Solid lines are data from 1963. Dotted lines are data from 1933. Dashed lines are data from 1969. Circles are data from 1950.
Figure 4.3 Fraction of total phytoplankton in Lake Washington composed of the genus Oscillatoria. Only one datum is available for 1955 (July). In that year, the first reported bloom of Oscillatoria rubescens occurred in the lake.
Figure 4.5 Correlation between surface values of phosphate and nitrate during the spring phytoplankton bloom when the concentrations of nutrients are decreasing. Circles, squares, plusses, triangles, and inverted triangles correspond to data collected in 1933, 1962, 1967, 1968, and 1969, respectively. The straight lines are regression lines fit to the data. Nitrogen/phosphorus ratios are shown by the numbered lines radiating from the origin.
Figure 4.6 Molar ratio of nitrate to phosphate during January–March in Lake Washington based on data in Figure 4.2d.
Figure 4.7 Depletion rate of O₂ below a depth of 20 m during the summer stratification period in Lake Washington. The duration of the stratification period averages 200 days, and the initial O₂ concentration averages 11.3 g O₂ m⁻³.
Figure 4.8 Relationship between mean July–August Secchi depth and mean July–August chlorophyll a in upper 10 m of the water column.
Figure 4.9 Mean alkalinity in Lake Washington measured from July 1 to August 20.
Figure 4.10 Vollenweider model of phosphorus fluxes in a lake.
Figure 4.11 Lake Erie and environs.
Figure 4.12 Commercial catch of six species of fish whose populations suffered serious declines in Lake Erie. Plus (+) symbols indicate lake trout catches in isolated years from 1980 to 1994.
Figure 4.13 Mercury, PCB, and DDT concentrations (wet weight basis, whole fish) in rainbow smelt from Lake Erie and walleye from the western basin of Lake Erie. Error bars are standard errors of data averaged over 5-year time intervals.
Figure 4.14 Annual loading of suspended solids (SS) to Lake Erie from the Maumee, Sandusky, Cuyahoga, and Grand rivers. Data are mean rates during 5-year intervals. Error bars are standard errors.
Figure 4.15 Mercury loading to Lake Erie from point source discharges. The dashed line is the goal established by the Ohio Lake Erie Commission.
Figure 4.16 Phosphorus loading to Lake Erie from 1967 to 2011. Straight lines are linear regressions to data from 1967–1985 and 1986–2002.
Figure 4.17 Loading of phosphorus to Lake Erie from point sources. The dashed line is the expected loading if all point sources discharging more than 1 million gallons per day (mgd) reduce the P content of their effluent to no more than 1.0 ppm (1978 revisions to the 1972 Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement between the United States and Canada).
Figure 4.18 Farmland in the Lake Erie watershed in CRP/CREP and conservation tillage.
Figure 4.19 Total phosphorus concentrations in the central basin of Lake Erie. Data are mean values over 5-year time intervals. Error bars are standard errors.
Figure 4.20 Chlorophyll a concentrations in the central basin of Lake Erie. Data are median values in 5-year time intervals. Error bars are median absolute deviations.
Figure 4.21 Means and standard deviations of June–August Secchi depths measured in the central basin of Lake Erie during consecutive 5-year intervals.
Figure 4.22 Oxygen depletion rates in the hypolimnion of the central basin of Lake Erie. The straight line is a least squares regression fit to the data after 1958. The slope of the regression line is statistically significant at p = 0.05.
Figure 4.23 Density of mayfly nymphs in the sediments of the western basin of Lake Erie.
Figure 4.24 (a) Number of bald eagle nests throughout Ohio and (b) number of bald eagle fledglings per nest.
Figure 4.25 Loading of phosphorus to Lake Erie from nonpoint sources. The dashed line is a linear least squares regression fit to the data.
Figure 4.26 Average number of days of beach advisories at Lake Erie beaches monitored by the Ohio Department of Health along the south shore of Lake Erie. Data are median values during 5-year intervals. Error bars are median absolute deviations.
Figure 4.27 Total commercial fish catch from Lake Erie.
Figure 4.28 Historical commercial catches of the six most important species by weight in the present commercial fish catch from Lake Erie.
Figure 4.29 Kaneohe Bay and environs.
Figure 4.30 Human population of the Kaneohe watershed between 1920 and 2000. The straight line is a linear regression fit to the data.
Figure 4.31 Effect of nutrients in sewage on production of organic matter by organisms in Kaneohe Bay. Positive effects are indicated by a + and negative effects are indicated by a −. The direct effect of nutrients on production of organic matter by the coral reef benthic community is positive, but indirect effects, transmitted through the food chain, are negative.
Figure 4.32 Water quality characteristics of Kaneohe Bay during the year immediately preceding sewage diversion (1976–1977), the year immediately following sewage diversion (1977–1978), and approximately 15 years following sewage diversion (1989–1992).
Figure 4.33 Fluxes of nutrients into and out of Kaneohe Bay sediments at various times before and after diversion of sewage discharges from the bay.
Figure 4.34 Percent cover of bottom by Dictyosphaeria cavernosa and corals along experimental transects in Kaneohe Bay.

Chapter 5: Nonpoint Source Pollution

Figure 5.1 Rates of soil erosion from cropland in the United States.
Figure 5.2 Schematic of the TARP to store and treat urban runoff in the Chicago area.
Figure 5.3 Bathymetry of Lake Jackson.
Figure 5.4 Maps of the urban watershed (Meginnis Arm watershed) and the forested watershed (Oxbottom Creek watershed).
Figure 5.5 Comparison of stream discharge and concentrations of SS (a,b), silicate (c,d), and phosphate (e,f) versus time in the two experimental watersheds for the storm of November 21, 1973. Note differences in horizontal (time) and vertical (discharge and concentration) scales between watersheds.
Figure 5.6 (a) Stream flow versus time during a hypothetical rainfall event, (b) concentration of a pollutant during the same event, (c) the cumulative flux of that pollutant versus cumulative water flux given the concentration time course shown in panel (b), and (d) cumulative pollutant flux with a concentration time course similar to panel b but with the initial concentration 100 times the final concentration. In panels (c) and (d), the dashed line is the cumulative flux if the concentration of the pollutant is constant.
Figure 5.7 Percent total runoff of SS and nutrients versus percent total runoff of water calculated from the data in Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.8 Schematic of the Lake Jackson stormwater treatment facility.

Chapter 6: Sewage Treatment

Figure 6.1 Diagram of flow through a secondary sewage treatment plant.
Figure 6.2 Total phosphorus concentrations in sewage effluent entering Onondaga Lake from 1971 to 2011. Between 1993 and 2006, P discharges from METRO were reduced by 86% (Anonymous 2015).
Figure 6.3 Total P concentrations in the epilimnion of Onondaga Lake from 1970 to 1972 and from 1987 to 2010.

Chapter 7: Pathogens in Natural Waters

Figure 7.1 Cases of legionellosis in the United States.
Figure 7.2 Cases of typhoid fever in the United States from 1944 to 2012.
Figure 7.3 Cases of salmonellosis (excluding typhoid fever) and shigellosis in the United States from 1944 to 2012.
Figure 7.4 Cases of enterohemorrhagic E. coli infections in the United States.
Figure 7.5 Rate of occurrence of leptospirosis in the United States from 1947 to 1994.
Figure 7.6 Rate of occurrence of cryptosporidiosis in the United States from 1995 to 2012.
Figure 7.7 Rate of occurrence of poliomyelitis in the United States from 1944 to 2012.
Figure 7.8 Rate of occurrence of poliomyelitis globally from 1985 to 2014.
Figure 7.9 Empirical relationships between gastrointestinal illness rates of swimmers at marine beaches and the concentrations of Enterococcus (a) and E. coli (b). Straight lines are regression lines. Dashed curves are the 95% confidence intervals to the regression lines.
Figure 7.10 Diagram of a rapid sand filter. The filter is usually backwashed every 1–2 days. The two troughs above the sand carry away wash water when the filter is backwashed. (
Figure 7.11 Typhoid fever cases in the City of Seattle, Washington, from 1901 to 1938.

Chapter 8: Toxicology

Figure 8.1 History of DDE concentrations in Southern California brown pelican eggs, eggshell thickness, and pelican reproductive success as reported by Anderson et al. (1975, 1977), Gustafson (1990), and Gress (1995). Vertical arrows in panel (d) indicate years during which El Niño events produced unusually warmwater conditions off the Southern California coast.
Figure 8.2 Photosynthesis by the marine diatom Nitzschia delicatissima after 24 hours of exposure to the following mercurials: (▲) diphenylmercury, (△) phenylmercuric acetate, (⚫) methylmercury dicyandiamide, (o) MEMMI (a compound containing methylmercury).
Figure 8.3 Effect of temperature and food availability on food consumption (A_c) and the partitioning of consumed food for various purposes by a poikilothermic animal. The curves are qualitative and purely theoretical.
Figure 8.4 Percentage survival of bluegill fish after 96 hours versus copper concentration. The smooth curve is a lognormal curve adjusted to give the best fit to the combined CuSO₄ and CuCl₂ data. The intersection of this curve with the horizontal line at 50% survival gives the median tolerance limit (TLm) after 96 hours, 0.74 mg L⁻¹.
Figure 8.5 Percentage mortality versus resistance time for juvenile brook trout exposed to the indicated concentrations of dissolved oxygen after being conditioned to 10.5 mg L⁻¹ oxygen.
Figure 8.6 Median survival time of rainbow trout as a function of zinc concentration at three levels of water hardness.
Figure 8.7 Cumulative probability distribution of dieldrin genus mean acute values based on the data in Table 8.4. The straight line is a least squares fit to the four lowest data points.
Figure 8.8 Performance of sockeye salmon as a function of acclimation temperature.
Figure 8.9 Cadmium freshwater EC50 and LC50 values for a total of 12 freshwater organisms as a function of water hardness. Straight lines fit to data all have the same slope but different intercepts. Meaning of symbols as follows: (△) tubificid worm (Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri), (✽) tubificid worm (Tubifex tubifex), (+) mussel (Villosa vibex), (⚪) cladoceran (Daphnia magna), (⚫) cladoceran (Daphnia pulex), (▽) Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), (▷) goldfish (Carassius auratus), (◁) fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas), (●) guppy (Poecilia reticulata), (●) striped bass (Morone saxatilis), (▲) green sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus), and (▼) bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus). Regression lines for the last two organisms have virtually the same intercept.
Figure 8.10 Temperature tolerance zones for young sockeye salmon as a function of acclimation temperature.
Figure 8.11 Possible interactions between two hypothetical toxicants, A and B.

Chapter 9: Industrial Pollution

Figure 9.1 Qualitative variation of dissolved oxygen concentration resulting from BOD discharge into a stream. A characteristic oxygen sag curve.
Figure 9.2 Oxygen sag leading to anoxia caused by a single large discharge of BOD (9a) or a series of smaller but closely spaced BOD discharges (9b).
Figure 9.3 (a) Area of sugar cane land harvested each year, (b) tonnes of raw sugar produced, and (c) raw sugar produced per hectare by Hawaiian sugar cane industry.
Figure 9.4 Direct income to Hawaii from major export industries.
Figure 9.5 Flow diagram of a typical sugar cane mill in Hawaii.
Figure 9.6 Cumulative runoff from the Waialua cane fields (b) and control area (a) versus cumulative rainfall for the storm of February 1, 1969.
Figure 9.7 (a) Global production of world pulp and paper and (b) percentage of paper and paperboard products accounted for by recycling since 1969.
Figure 9.8 Production of pulp for paper in the United States.
Figure 9.9 Diagram of typical pulp and paper processes.
Figure 9.10 Depiction of species diversity based on plots of numbers of individual macrofauna versus number of species in pulp mill discharge area in (a) Saltkällefjord (Sweden) and (b) Annat Narrows (Scotland).
Figure 9.11 Diagrammatic representation of faunal and sedimentary changes under increasing organic loading from pulp mill effluent. From right to left are seen a fiber blanket, burrows of polychaete worms, bivalves, brittle stars, a sea urchin, and finally a Norway lobster.
Figure 9.12 Apalachee Bay drainage area showing the Econfina and Fenholloway rivers and the Buckeye Cellulose pulp mill.

Chapter 10: Pesticides and Persistent Organic Pollutants

Figure 10.1 Structures of DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), DDD, (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane), DDE (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethene), and methoxychlor.
Figure 10.2 Structures of chlordane, heptachlor, aldrin, and dieldrin.
Figure 10.3 Structures of two organophosphorus pesticides, malathion and parathion.
Figure 10.4 Structures of two carbamates, aldicarb and carbofuran.
Figure 10.5 Structures of two pyrethroids, allethrin and dimethrin.
Figure 10.6 Incidence of malaria in Sri Lanka from 1911 to 2013.
Figure 10.7 Pesticide use in agriculture in the United States from 1964 to 2007.
Figure 10.8 Photosynthetic rates of five cultures of marine phytoplankton as affected by DDT concentrations.
Figure 10.9 Effect of 10 ppb DDT on the photosynthetic rate of the marine diatom Skeletonema costatum as a function of cell concentration.
Figure 10.10 Total DDT of 1960 lake trout egg lots, based on wet weight, computed from dry weight and based on the average wet weight to dry weight ratio of 1961 eggs. Solid bars indicate the occurrence of the syndrome.
Figure 10.11 DDT residues in components of artificial ponds treated with 5 ppb DDT in 1966.
Figure 10.12 Variation in shell thickness and DDE concentrations in the eggs of herring gulls in 1967. The eggs were taken off Block Island, Rhode Island; Green Island in Penobscot Bay, Maine; Rogers City, Michigan, on Lake Huron; near Knife River, Minnesota, on Lake Superior; and the Sister Islands in Green Bay, Wisconsin. Some polychlorinated biphenyls probably also occurred in these eggs, but they have not been identified.
Figure 10.13 Association of DDE residues in 80 pelican eggs from Florida (solid circles), South Carolina (triangles), and California (solid square) with the percentage of pre-1947 eggshell thickness. The regression line (narrow dashed line) is shown together with the 95% confidence limits for both the regression line (solid lines) and the individual ordinate values (thick dashed lines).
Figure 10.14 Relationship between DDE concentrations in Southern California brown pelican eggs and eggshell thickness based on data shown in Figure 8.1 for period 1969–1986.
Figure 10.15 Annual loading of DDT residues to the Southern California Bight by the four municipal sewer outfalls that account for 89% of the point source discharges to the bight.
Figure 10.16 Incidence of screwworm fly infestations in Texas from 1962 to 1982.
Figure 10.17 Two polychlorinated biphenyl compounds.
Figure 10.18 Annual loading of PCBs to the Southern California Bight by the four municipal sewer outfalls that account for 89% of the point source discharges to the bight.
Figure 10.19 Average PCB levels in beef, pork, and poultry based on Canadian analyses from October 1969 to April 1985.

Chapter 11: Thermal Pollution and Power Plants

Figure 11.1 Schematic diagram of an electric power plant’s steam and cooling system.
Figure 11.2 Diagram of the inflow system to the condenser cooling tubes in a typical electric power plant.
Figure 11.3 East Florida coast just south of Miami showing the location of Biscayne Bay, the area occupied by the Biscayne National Park, and the power plant at Turkey Point.
Figure 11.4 Detail of the original cooling canal system at Turkey Point power plant. Note the discharge into Biscayne Bay at Turtle Point.
Figure 11.5 Biological damage zone in Biscayne Bay resulting from conditions on June 25–27, 1969.
Figure 11.6 Natural draft (a) and mechanical draft (b) wet cooling towers.
Figure 11.7 The effect of cooling water chlorination on photosynthesis by marine phytoplankton at Fawley power station, United Kingdom.

Chapter 12: Metals

Figure 12.1 World production and US consumption of mercury.
Figure 12.2 Transformations of mercury leading to methyl mercury.
Figure 12.3 Location of island of Kyushu (top), Minamata (center), and the Chisso factory and Minamata Bay (bottom).
Figure 12.4 Molar ratio of selenium to mercury in fish from the central North Pacific near Hawaii. Dashed line corresponds to a molar ratio of 1.0.
Figure 12.5 World production and net US consumption of cadmium.
Figure 12.6 Toyama City and Jintsu River basin. Hatched area indicates region where disease occurred.
Figure 12.7 Decline in Cd deposition over Greenland.
Figure 12.8 World lead production during the past 5500 years.
Figure 12.9 Use of lead in ammunition in the United States.
Figure 12.10 Use of lead in gasoline in the United States.
Figure 12.11 World production and US consumption of lead.
Figure 12.12 Dissolved Pb concentrations in the western North Atlantic near Bermuda.
Figure 12.13 Lead concentrations in Greenland ice sheet.
Figure 12.14 Total body burden of lead in humans as a function of age.
Figure 12.15 Concentrations of lead in tap water from the city of Flint, Michigan.
Figure 12.16 Change in blood Pb levels during phaseout of leaded gasoline in the United States.
Figure 12.17 Change in blood Pb levels during phaseout of leaded gasoline in the United States.
Figure 12.18 Annual loading of lead to the Southern California Bight by the four municipal sewer outfalls that account for 89% of the point source discharges to the bight.

Chapter 13: Oil Pollution

Figure 13.1 World crude oil production from 1930 to 2014.
Figure 13.2 Quantity of oil discharged to the ocean per year as a result of tanker accidents.
Figure 13.3 Frequency of oil tanker spills that released more than 700 tonnes of oil to the marine environment.
Figure 13.4 Structures of the simplest alkanes. Dashed lines indicate electron-pair bonds.
Figure 13.5 Structures of normal butane and isobutane.
Figure 13.6 Structures of simple cycloalkanes.
Figure 13.7 Simple aromatic compounds found in crude oil. The dashed circles inside the carbon hexagons indicate additional electron bonding.
Figure 13.8 Structures of two simple olefins.
Figure 13.9 Median tolerance limits of some aromatic hydrocarbons for selected marine macroinvertebrates and fish. Duration of exposure was 96 hour unless otherwise noted.
Figure 13.10 Map of Prince William Sound showing the location of the port of Valdez, Bligh Reef, the site of the grounding of the Exxon Valdez, and Knight Island. The shaded area is the region covered by the oil slick.
Figure 13.11 Fate of Exxon Valdez oil, from time of the spill to October 1, 1992.
Figure 13.12 Estimated numbers of sea otters on northern Knight Island. Error bars are standard errors.
Figure 13.13 Location of tanker Florida spill (star) in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts. The rectangle including Wild Harbor was intensively sampled by scientists.
Figure 13.14 Typical gas chromatograms of crude oil after removal of those components having a boiling point less than 316 °C, equivalent to the boiling point of normal octadecane (C₁₈H₃₈). However, the residues retain some hydrocarbons down to n-C₁₃H₂₈, and these appear in the gas chromatographic profile.

Chapter 14: Radioactivity

Figure 14.1 Numbers of protons and neutrons in the nuclei of stable nuclides.
Figure 14.2 Hypothetical dose–effect curves describing the relationship between radiation dose and health effects.
Figure 14.3 Actual dose–effect data describing incidence of thyroid cancer (a) and leukemia deaths (b) caused by ionizing radiation.
Figure 14.4 Relative sensitivity of three groups of organisms to acute doses of X or g radiation.
Figure 14.5 Relationship between chromosome volume of seed plants and acute lethal doses of radiation.
Figure 14.6 ⁹⁰Sr concentration factors in various components of a small Canadian lake receiving low-level radioactive wastes.
Figure 14.7 Probability distribution of daughter nuclides produced by the fissioning of ²³⁵U.
Figure 14.8 Cross section of a pressurized nuclear reactor.
Figure 14.9 Schematic of two types of nuclear power reactors.
Figure 14.10 Diagram of an LMFBR.
Figure 14.11 The critical pathway by which humans were exposed to ³²P from Hanford reactor wastes in the Columbia River.
Figure 14.12 US public opinion on building more nuclear power plants, 1975–1986.
Figure 14.13 Average cost of new US nuclear power plants entering operation, 1970–1987.
Figure 14.14 Location of radioactive waste sites in the United States.

Chapter 15: Acid Deposition and Ocean Acidification

Figure 15.1 Annual average pH of precipitation in the eastern United States in selected years.
Figure 15.2 The acidification pattern of rainfall over the United States in June 1966.
Figure 15.3 Mean monthly bulk precipitation values for selected ions in Hubbard Brook during 1963–1974.
Figure 15.4 Regions in North America containing lakes that are sensitive to acidification by acid deposition. The shaded areas have igneous or metamorphic bedrock geology. Sources of major SO_x emissions are indicated by solid dots.
Figure 15.5 Historical and projected (to 2035) global anthropogenic emissions of SO_x (as S) and NO_x (as N).
Figure 15.6 Historical anthropogenic emissions of SO_x (as S) and NO_x (as N) for the United States.
Figure 15.7 Relationship between the annual H⁺ input and input to the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest during the period 1964–1965 to 1973–1974.
Figure 15.8 The share of coal, oil, and natural gas in Dutch fuel consumption from 1946 to 1978.
Figure 15.9 Changes in the pH of Cerné Lake (Šumava Mountains) and Vyšné Wahlenbergovo Lake (High Tetra Mountains) in Central Europe.
Figure 15.10 Atmospheric CO₂ concentrations measured at the Mauna Loa observatory from 1958 to July 2015.
Figure 15.11 Mechanisms by which CO₂ is sequestered in the ocean and ultimately neutralized by marine sediments.
Figure 15.12 CO₂ emissions, the concentration of atmospheric CO₂, and the change in ocean pH from 1750 to 3000 assuming that all known fossil fuel deposits are burned.

Chapter 16: Groundwater Pollution

Figure 16.1 Groundwater withdrawals of fresh water in the United States from 1950 to 2010.
Figure 16.2 Diagram of confined and unconfined aquifers and disposal methods that can contaminate them.
Figure 16.3 Location of Rocky Mountain Arsenal and city of Denver, Colorado.
Figure 16.4 Location of evaporation ponds within the Rocky Mountain Arsenal and irrigated lands (stippled areas) to the north and west of the Arsenal. Dots indicate locations of irrigation wells. Evaporation pond F is the asphalt-lined pond. The other evaporation ponds are unlined.
Figure 16.5 Schematic diagram of barrier and treatment system installed along northern boundary of the Rocky Mountain Arsenal.
Figure 16.6 Location of various barrier and treatment systems at boundaries of the Rocky Mountain Arsenal.
Figure 16.7 Reduction in the generation of toxic waste by 1300 companies participating in the EPA 33/50 program.

Chapter 17: Plastics in the Sea

Figure 17.1 Global plastic production since 1950.
Figure 17.2 Reproduction of northern fur seals during the twentieth century.
Figure 17.3 MARPOL Annex V educational poster produced by the Center for Marine Conservation.
Figure 17.4 Volunteer participation in beach cleanups in the United States from 1984 to 1997.

List of Tables

Chapter 1: Fundamental Concepts

Table 1.1 DDT residues in organisms taken from a Long Island salt marsh.

Chapter 2: Photosynthesis

Table 2.1 Essential macro- and micronutrient elements for plants.
Table 2.2 Average concentrations of selected elements in river water and seawater (S = 35).^a
Table 2.3 Mean chlorophyll a concentrations in Lake 304.

Chapter 3: Physical Factors Affecting Production

Table 3.1 Nutrient, light, and photosynthetic characteristics during each of the four seasons in a typical temperate aquatic system in which the mixed layer does not extend to the bottom.

Chapter 4: Cultural Eutrophication Case Studies

Table 4.1 Characteristics of Lake Washington and Lake Sammamish relevant to Vollenweider's model of lake eutrophication.
Table 4.2 Characteristics of Lake Sammamish relevant to Vollenweider's model of lake eutrophication corrected for effects of internal P cycling.
Table 4.3 Estimated annual loading (kg) of selected pollutants into Lake Erie.
Table 4.4 Importance by weight of species to commercial fish catch in Lake Erie in selected years.
Table 4.5 Metabolic characteristics of reef flat benthic communities.

Chapter 5: Nonpoint Source Pollution

Table 5.1 Average concentrations of various components of urban runoff, raw sewage, and rainfall (in mg L⁻¹).
Table 5.2 Fluxes (kg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹) of various constituents from urban runoff,^a agricultural land,^b and forested land^c compared with raw sewage.^d
Table 5.3 Mean values of selected parameters over a 3-year period in Lake Jackson.
Table 5.4 Mean concentrations of SS, inorganic N, and inorganic P in dry weather runoff and storm runoff from the forested and urban watersheds (mg L⁻¹).
Table 5.5 Rainfall and estimated annual loadings of water, SS, and nutrients from the urban and forested watersheds.
Table 5.6 Days of baseflow required to deliver as much of the indicated constituent as was delivered by an average storm during the Lake Jackson watershed study.
Table 5.7 Percentage change in flux of various constituents through detention basin/sand filter and artificial marsh during storm of June 11, 1985.

Chapter 6: Sewage Treatment

Table 6.1 Percent removal of BOD and SSs using various treatment methods.
Table 6.2 Estimated capital cost and operating cost of a 60 million liter per day (mLd) and 360 mLd POTW as of 2000.
Table 6.3 Estimated total cost to the taxpayer of the POTWs listed in Table 6.2.
Table 6.4 Crop yields from control plots (commercial fertilizer) and plots sprayed with secondary sewage effluent in 1963–1966.
Table 6.5 Maximum permissible cumulative amounts of metals associated with the application of sewage sludge to agricultural land.

Chapter 7: Pathogens in Natural Waters

Table 7.1 Causative agents of waterborne disease outbreaks associated with use of recreational waters in the United States, 2001–2010.
Table 7.2 Causative agents of waterborne disease outbreaks associated with drinking water supplies in the United States, 2001–2010.
Table 7.3 Human enteric viruses that may be present in water.
Table 7.4 Fecal coliform abundances and Salmonella occurrence.
Table 7.5 Water quality criteria for recreational water use.

Chapter 8: Toxicology

Table 8.1 Reproduction and eggshell thickness data from penned mallard ducks maintained for two seasons on feed containing DDE.
Table 8.2 Geometric mean residues of DDT in anchovies off the Southern California coast.
Table 8.3 Chronic toxicity of four compounds to Daphnia magna.
Table 8.4 Dieldrin genus mean acute values in saltwater.
Table 8.5 Acute/chronic ratios for dieldrin toxicity to three species of aquatic animals.
Table 8.6 Concentrations of dieldrin that reduce growth in aquatic plants.
Table 8.7 The three toxicant concentrations used to establish water quality guidelines for dieldrin in freshwater and saltwater.
Table 8.8 Uncertainty factors for deriving criteria for threshold effects of toxicants from NOAEL and/or LOAEL data.
Table 8.9 Definition of variables used to calculate human health criteria.
Table 8.10 Average daily intake and absorption of cadmium by Americans.
Table 8.11 Cadmium geometric mean BCFs for edible parts of consumed aquatic species.

Chapter 9: Industrial Pollution

Table 9.1 Successful innovative techniques for minimizing industrial waste.
Table 9.2 Environmental benefits derived from substituting recycled materials for virgin resources.
Table 9.3 Mean concentrations of selected constituents of the wastewater from the McBryde, Pioneer, and Honokaa mills and typical raw sewage.
Table 9.4 Mean concentrations of selected constituents in tailwater from the McBryde plantation.
Table 9.5 Typical characteristics of pulp and paper mill effluents circa 1980.

Chapter 10: Pesticides and Persistent Organic Pollutants

Table 10.1 Areas and major crops on which chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides are used, excluding the United States, Canada, Mainland China, and USSR.
Table 10.2 Capture of sea trout in the Laguna Madre.
Table 10.3 DDT residues in anchovies taken off the Southern California coast.
Table 10.4 DDT residues in selected organisms from a Long Island salt marsh.
Table 10.5 Reproduction and eggshell thickness data from penned mallards maintained for two seasons on feed containing DDE, DDD, or DDT.^a
Table 10.6 Estimated average annual economic benefits from use of IPM, selected cases, United States, early 1980s.
Table 10.7 Successful applications of IPM in agriculture.
Table 10.8 Persistent organic pollutants listed in the original Stockholm Convention (the dirty dozen) and in subsequent updates.

Chapter 11: Thermal Pollution and Power Plants

Table 11.1 Maximum elevations of monthly means of maximum daily water temperatures outside designated zones of mixing as recommended by the National Technical Advisory Committee in 1968.
Table 11.2 Relative capital costs of various types of electric power plant cooling systems.
Table 11.3 Fish kills due to screen impingement at various power stations.
Table 11.4 Fish kills due to inner plant stresses at various power stations.
Table 11.5 Organisms cultured using thermal effluent from power plants in various countries.

Chapter 12: Metals

Table 12.1 Maximum permissible contaminant level goals for various metals in drinking water in the United States.
Table 12.2 Sediment metal concentrations (ng g⁻¹ dry weight) at two locations in Oahu, Hawaii, and in two unpolluted Australian bays and dissolved metal concentrations (ng g⁻¹) in average river water and seawater.
Table 12.3 Median concentrations of metals in phytoplankton and zooplankton collected between California and Hawaii.
Table 12.4 Hg levels in a simple food chain.
Table 12.5 US mercury consumption figures for 1997.
Table 12.6 Estimated fluxes of Hg to the atmosphere.
Table 12.7 Percentage organic mercury in a simple food chain.
Table 12.8 EPA water quality criteria for dissolved mercury for the protection of aquatic organisms in freshwater and saltwater.
Table 12.9 Estimated fluxes of Cd to the atmosphere and ocean.
Table 12.10 EPA water quality criteria for dissolved cadmium for the protection of aquatic organisms in freshwater and saltwater.
Table 12.11 Use of lead in the United States in 2012.
Table 12.12 Global lead emissions to the atmosphere from natural and anthropogenic sources.
Table 12.13 Estimated daily amounts of Pb absorbed into the blood of adult humans in prehistoric and modern times.
Table 12.14 Lowest blood Pb levels associated with observed biological effects in humans.
Table 12.15 EPA water quality criteria for dissolved lead for the protection of aquatic organisms in freshwater and saltwater.

Chapter 13: Oil Pollution

Table 13.1 Principal uses of oil in the world economy in 2012.
Table 13.2 Estimates of petroleum inputs to the marine environment.
Table 13.3 Major oil tanker accidents.
Table 13.4 Petroleum fractions collected by fractional distillation within indicated temperature ranges.
Table 13.5 Fate of oil spilled from the Exxon Valdez as of October 1, 1992, expressed as a percent of oil spilled.

Chapter 14: Radioactivity

Table 14.1 Q factors for selected types of radiation.
Table 14.2 Estimates of annual average radiation exposure to a member of the US population.
Table 14.3 Radiation dose equivalent limits for protection of individual members of the general public due to sources other than natural background and exposures received as a patient for medical purposes.
Table 14.4 Radionuclides that are of special concern as health hazards to humans.
Table 14.5 Monetary losses to the Soviet Union from the Chernobyl accident, June 1986.
Table 14.6 Compacts formed by states to share responsibilities for commercial low-level radioactive waste disposal.
Table 14.7 Location of uranium mill tailings sites subject to remedial action under the UMTRA program.
Table 14.8 Status of decommissioning of nuclear power plants in the United States as of January, 1998.

Chapter 15: Acid Deposition and Ocean Acidification

Table 15.1 Common groups of marine organisms that produce calcium carbonate.

Chapter 16: Groundwater Pollution

Table 16.1 Some of the pollutants detected in public water supplies whose concentrations exceeded SDWA standards at least once from 2004 to 2009 based on surveys (almost 20 million records) conducted by state agencies in 45 states and the District of Columbia and summarized by the Environmental Working Group.
Table 16.2 Number of active and cleaned up Superfund sites in the United States as of December 2014.
Table 16.3 Priority chemicals targeted by the EPA’s 33/50 program.

Chapter 17: Plastics in the Sea

Table 17.1 Estimated loss rates due to trap ghost fishing.
Table 17.2 Summary of MARPOL Annex V at-sea garbage disposal regulations.

Aquatic Pollution: An Introductory Text

Edward A. Laws

Los Angeles, US

Fourth Edition

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Title: Aquatic pollution : an introductory text / by Edward A. Laws, Los Angeles, US.

Description: 4th edition. | Hoboken, NJ, USA : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2018. | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2016054156 (print) | LCCN 2016056136 (ebook) | ISBN9781119304500 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119304555 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119304593 (epub)