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Cover
Title
Copyright
FOREWORD
FOREWORD TO THE FIRST EDITION
PREFACE
CONTRIBUTORS
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
SECTION A: Theory: Human Health Assessment
1. 1 Primer on Human and Environmental Risk Assessment
  1. 1.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 1.2 HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT: A BRIEF HISTORY
  3. 1.3 HELPFUL RESOURCES FOR CONDUCTING RISK ASSESSMENTS
  4. 1.4 PRINCIPLES FOR RISK ANALYSIS
  5. 1.5 SUMMARY
2. 2 Hazard Identification
  1. 2.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 2.2 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION FOR CARCINOGENS
  3. 2.3 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION FOR NONCARCINOGENS
  4. 2.4 EVALUATING CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
  5. 2.5 AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY
  6. 2.6 SEDIMENT TESTS
  7. 2.7 BIOCONCENTRATION STUDIES
  8. 2.8 AVIAN TOXICITY TESTS
  9. 2.9 EVALUATING RISKS TO DOMESTIC ANIMALS
  10. 2.10 EARTHWORMS AND OTHER WILDLIFE
  11. 2.11 CLOSING
3. 3 Dose–Response Modeling for Cancer Risk Assessment
  1. 3.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 3.2 MEASURES OF DISEASE FREQUENCY
  3. 3.3 EMPIRICAL STATISTICAL METHODS
  4. 3.4 BIOLOGICALLY BASED DOSE–RESPONSE MODELING
  5. 3.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
4. 4 Exposure Assessment
  1. 4.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 4.2 BASIC CONCEPTS
  3. 4.3 CONCEPTUAL APPROACHES TO EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
  4. 4.4 INFORMATION UPON WHICH EXPOSURE ASSESSMENTS ARE BASED
  5. 4.5 ESTIMATING UPTAKE VIA THE SKIN
  6. 4.6 ESTIMATING INTAKE VIA INGESTION
  7. 4.7 ESTIMATING UPTAKE VIA INHALATION
  8. 4.8 ROLE OF UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
  9. 4.9 ISSUES IN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
  10. 4.10 CLOSING THOUGHTS
5. 5 Risk Characterization
  1. 5.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 5.2 GUIDANCE DOCUMENTS ON RISK CHARACTERIZATION
  3. 5.3 KEY COMPONENTS OF RISK CHARACTERIZATION
  4. 5.4 TOXICITY CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING HEALTH RISKS
  5. 5.5 DESCRIPTORS USED TO CHARACTERIZE HEALTH RISKS
  6. 5.6 METHODS FOR QUANTIFYING HUMAN HEALTH RISKS
  7. 5.7 KEY UNCERTAINTIES IN RISK CHARACTERIZATIONS
  8. 5.8 RISK DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
  9. 5.9 INTERNATIONAL APPROACHES TO RISK CHARACTERIZATION
  10. 5.10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS OF RISK CHARACTERIZATION
SECTION B: Theory: Ecological Risk Assessment
1. 6 Ecological Risk Assessment: History and Fundamentals
  1. 6.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 6.2 PLANNING THE RISK ASSESSMENT
  3. 6.3 PROBLEM FORMULATION
  4. 6.4 ANALYSIS PHASE
  5. 6.5 RISK CHARACTERIZATION
  6. 6.6 RELATING ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION TO RISK MANAGEMENT DECISIONS (COMMUNICATING RISK)
SECTION C: Case Studies Involving Contaminated Water
1. 7 Hexavalent Chromium in Groundwater: The Importance of Chemistry and Pharmacokinetics in Quantitating Dose and Risk
  1. 7.1 BACKGROUND
  2. 7.2 MECHANISTIC ASPECTS OF INHALATION AND ORAL TOXICITY OF CR(VI)
  3. 7.3 REGULATORY CRITERIA FOR CR(VI) RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK MANAGEMENT
  4. 7.4 KEY SCIENTIFIC ISSUES AND CONCERNS
  5. 7.5 EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT RESEARCH
  6. 7.6 RESEARCH ON SYSTEMIC CR(VI) DOSE AND TOXICITY
  7. 7.7 CONDUCTING A RISK ASSESSMENT AND DOSE COMPARISON
2. 8 Estimating the Value of Research: Illustrative Calculation for Ingested Inorganic Arsenic
  1. 8.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 8.2 EXAMPLES USING INGESTED INORGANIC ARSENIC
  3. 8.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
  4. 8.4 CONCLUSIONS
SECTION D: Case Study Involving Contaminated Soils
1. 9 Risk Assessment of Chromium-Contaminated Soils: Twelve Years of Research to Characterize the Health Hazards
  1. 9.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 9.2 SITE DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY
  3. 9.3 STRATEGIC DIRECTION OF THE SPECIAL REMEDIAL ORGANIZATION
  4. 9.4 DATA COLLECTION EFFORTS
  5. 9.5 EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
  6. 9.6 TOXICITY ASSESSMENT FOR TRIVALENT AND HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM IN COPR
  7. 9.7 RISK CHARACTERIZATION
  8. 9.8 PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS OF THIS ANALYSIS
  9. 9.9 CONCLUSIONS
SECTION E: Characterizing Exposure to Air Contaminants
1. 10 Quantification of Variability and Uncertainty: Case Study of Power Plant Hazardous Air Pollutant Emissions
  1. 10.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 10.2 COMPILATION OF DATABASE FOR THE CASE STUDY
  3. 10.3 DEVELOPMENT OF PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION MODELS
  4. 10.4 QUANTIFICATION OF UNCERTAINTY IN THE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION FOR MODEL INPUTS
  5. 10.5 ESTIMATING VARIABILITY AND UNCERTAINTY IN A MODEL OUTPUT
  6. 10.6 DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
  7. 10.7 CONCLUSIONS
2. 11 Characteristic Time, Characteristic Travel Distance, and Population-Based Potential Dose in a Multimedia Environment: A Case Study
  1. 11.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 11.2 METHODS
  3. 11.3 CASE STUDY
  4. 11.4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
SECTION F: Evaluating Occupational Hazards
1. 12 Methods for Setting Occupational Exposure Limits
  1. 12.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 12.2 HISTORY OF OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE LIMITS
  3. 12.3 RISK ASSESSMENT CONSIDERATIONS
  4. 12.4 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SETTING OELS
  5. 12.5 METHODS FOR SETTING OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE LIMITS
  6. 12.6 BIOMARKERS-BASED OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE LIMITS
  7. 12.7 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SETTING BEIS
  8. 12.8 METHODS FOR SETTING BEIS
  9. 12.9 CONCLUSION
2. 13 Worker Hazard Posed by Reentry into Pesticide-Treated Foliage: Reassessment of Reentry Levels/Intervals Using Foliar Residue Transfer–Percutaneous Absorption PBPK/PD Models, with Emphasis on Isofenphos and Parathion
  1. 13.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 13.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
  3. 13.3 RECENT ISSUES
  4. 13.4 HAZARD EVALUATION
  5. 13.5 EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
  6. 13.6 PROCEDURES FOR CALCULATING A REENTRY INTERVAL
  7. 13.7 REASSESSMENT OF REENTRY INTERVALS, FOLIAR RESIDUE TRANSFER/PERCUTANEOUS ABSORPTION PBPK/PD MODELS
  8. 13.8 DISCUSSION
SECTION G: Case Study Involving Exposure to Radionuclides
1. 14 Dose Reconstructions for Radionuclides and Chemicals: Case Study Involving Federal Facilities at Oak Ridge, Tennessee
  1. 14.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 14.2 BACKGROUND
  3. 14.3 IODINE-131 RELEASES FROM X-10 RADIOACTIVE LANTHANUM PROCESSING
  4. 14.4 MERCURY RELEASES FROM Y-12 LITHIUM ENRICHMENT
  5. 14.5 POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCBS) IN ENVIRONMENT NEAR OAK RIDGE
  6. 14.6 RADIONUCLIDES RELEASED FROM X-10 TO CLINCH RIVER VIA WHITE OAK CREEK
  7. 14.7 OVERALL SUMMARY OF PROJECT RESULTS
SECTION H: Evaluating Risk to Foods
1. 15 Transport of Persistent Organic Pollutants to Animal Products: Fundamental Principles and Application to Health Risk Assessment
  1. 15.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 15.2 ANIMAL EXPOSURE
  3. 15.3 PHARMACOKINETICS
  4. 15.4 TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
  5. 15.5 TISSUE AND PRODUCT RELATIONSHIPS
  6. 15.6 EFFECTS OF HALOGENATION AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
  7. 15.7 DEPURATION
  8. 15.8 CASE STUDY OF A LANDFILL SITE EVALUATION
  9. 15.9 CONCLUSIONS
2. 16 Estimating Dietary Exposure: Methods, Algorithms, and General Considerations
  1. 16.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 16.2 SCREENING APPROACHES FOR ESTIMATING DIETARY EXPOSURE (RANGE-FINDING METHODS)
  3. 16.3 DETAILED EXPOSURE ESTIMATION METHODOLOGY
  4. 16.4 CONCLUSIONS
3. 17 Analysis of Possible Health Risks to Recreational Fishers Due to Ingesting DDT and PCBs in Fish from Palos Verdes Shelf and Cabrillo Pier
  1. 17.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 17.2 METHODS
  3. 17.3 RESULTS
  4. 17.4 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS
  5. 17.5 APPLICABILITY OF THE RESULTS TO OTHER POPULATIONS
  6. 17.6 DISCUSSION
  7. 17.7 CONCLUSION
SECTION I: Assessing Risks Associated with Consumer Products
1. 18 Qualitative Health Risk Assessment of Natural Rubber Latex in Consumer Products
  1. 18.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 18.2 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE EXPOSURE TO ANTIGENS IN NRL GLOVES
  3. 18.3 DOSE–RESPONSE ASSESSMENT
  4. 18.4 EPIDEMIOLOGY
  5. 18.5 RISK FACTORS AND CONFOUNDERS
  6. 18.6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
SECTION J: Case Studies in Ecological Risk Assessment
1. 19 Determining Values: A Critical Step in Assessing Ecological Risk
  1. 19.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 19.2 ECOLOGICALLY RELEVANT VALUES
  3. 19.3 SOCIETALLY RELEVANT VALUES
  4. 19.4 SELECTING SITE-SPECIFIC ASSESSMENT ENDPOINTS
  5. 19.5 CASE STUDY
  6. 19.6 SUMMARY
2. 20 Comparison of Aquatic Ecological Risk Assessments at a Former Zinc Smelter and a Former Wood Preservative Site
  1. 20.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 20.2 PROBLEM FORMULATION
  3. 20.3 EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
  4. 20.4 EFFECTS ASSESSMENT
  5. 20.5 RISK CHARACTERIZATION
  6. 20.6 COMPARATIVE RISK CHARACTERIZATION
  7. 20.7 REMEDIAL ACTIVITIES
  8. 20.8 CONCLUSION
3. 21 Integration of Risk Assessment and Natural Resource Damage Assessment: Case Study of Lavaca Bay
  1. 21.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 21.2 BACKGROUND ON LAVACA BAY SITE
  3. 21.3 STUDY OBJECTIVES
  4. 21.4 STUDY DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION
  5. 21.5 STUDY RESULTS
  6. 21.6 DISCUSSION
SECTION K: Assessing Risks to Birds
1. 22 Using Probabilistic Risk Assessment Methods to Predict Effects of Pesticides on Aquatic Systems and Waterfowl That Use Them
  1. 22.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 22.2 BACKGROUND
  3. 22.3 PROBLEM FORMULATION
  4. 22.4 RISK ASSESSMENT APPROACH
  5. 22.5 EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
  6. 22.6 EFFECTS ASSESSMENT
  7. 22.7 RISK CHARACTERIZATION
2. 23 Methodology for Assessing Risk to Birds Following Application of Sprayable Pesticide to Citrus: Case Study Involving Chlorpyrifos
  1. 23.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 23.2 RISK ASSESSMENT PROCESS: BRIEF HISTORY
  3. 23.3 CURRENT STATUS OF PESTICIDE RISK ASSESSMENT AT EPA
  4. 23.4 CHLORPYRIFOS USE: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND TOXICOLOGY
  5. 23.5 SOME IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF AVIAN FEEDING HABITS
  6. 23.6 STUDY SCOPE AND DESIGN RATIONALE
  7. 23.7 STUDY AREA
  8. 23.8 METHODS AND MATERIALS
  9. 23.9 RESULTS
  10. 23.10 DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH
  11. 23.11 AVIAN RISK ASSESSMENT: DETERMINISTIC APPROACH
  12. 23.12 OVERVIEW
3. 24 Using Ecological Risk Assessment to Evaluate Potential Risks Posed by Chemicals to Birds
  1. 24.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 24.2 TOOLS FOR CHARACTERIZING EXPOSURE TO BIRDS
  3. 24.3 TOOLS FOR CHARACTERIZING EFFECTS IN BIRDS
  4. 24.4 CHARACTERIZATION OF ECOLOGICAL RISKS TO BIRDS
SECTION L: Risk Assessment and Life-Cycle Analyses
1. 25 Life-Cycle Impact Analysis: A Challenge for Risk Analysts
  1. 25.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 25.2 INTRODUCTION TO LITE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
  3. 25.3 ECONOMIC INPUT-OUTPUT LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
  4. 25.4 EXTERNAL COST ASSESSMENT
  5. 25.5 ARE THERE REMAINING AIR POLLUTION PROBLEMS?
  6. 25.6 TARGETING EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL COSTS
  7. 25.7 TOTAL COSTS OF MANUFACTURING: DIRECT AND INDIRECT EFFECTS
  8. 25.8 EMISSIONS DATA SOURCES
  9. 25.9 DAMAGE VALUATION OF EMISSIONS
  10. 25.10 EXTERNALITIES FROM COMMODITIES: U.S. ECONOMY IN 1992
  11. 25.11 CASE STUDY OF COMPARATIVE EIO-LCA EXAMPLE: STEEL VERSUS REINFORCED CONCRETE BRIDGES
  12. 25.12 INCORPORATION OF RISK ANALYSIS INTO LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
  13. 25.13 CASE STUDY INCORPORATING HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT INTO LCA: BENZENE AIR EMISSIONS FROM AN OIL REFINERY
  14. 25.14 SUMMARY AND CONTRIBUTIONS
SECTION M: Risk Communication and Risk Management
1. 26 Risk Assessment in Its Social Context
  1. 26.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 26.2 USING SOCIAL SCIENCE THEORY AND PRACTICE IN RISK ASSESSMENT PROCESSES
  3. 26.3 DEFINING STAKEHOLDERS
  4. 26.4 DEFINING THE RISK PROBLEM
  5. 26.5 COMMUNICATING INFORMATION ABOUT RISK
  6. 26.6 SUMMARY
2. 27 Trust, Emotion, Sex, Politics, and Science: Surveying the Risk-Assessment Battlefield
  1. 27.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 27.2 THE SUBJECTIVE AND VALUE-LADEN NATURE OF RISK ASSESSMENT
  3. 27.3 SEX, POLITICS, AND EMOTION IN RISK JUDGMENTS
  4. 27.4 THE IMPORTANCE OF TRUST
  5. 27.5 RESOLVING RISK CONFLICTS: WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE?
3. 28 Democratization of Risk Analysis
  1. 28.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 28.2 RISK ANALYSIS AND THE LAW
  3. 28.3 SCHOLARLY CRITIQUES OF RISK ANALYSIS
  4. 28.4 REGULATORY RISK ANALYSIS
  5. 28.5 DEMOCRATIC DECISION MAKING: CASE EXAMPLES
  6. 28.6 CONCLUSION: SCIENCE AND DEMOCRACY
4. 29 Misconceptions About the Causes of Cancer
SECTION N: Evolving Issues
1. 30 Children’s Health and Environmental Exposure to Chemicals: Implications for Risk Assessment and Public Health Policy
  1. 30.1 INTRODUCTION
  2. 30.2 CHRONOLOGY OF REGULATORY EVENTS: 1988–2000
  3. 30.3 DIFFERENCES IN EXPOSURE AND RESPONSE TO TOXIC AGENTS BETWEEN CHILDREN AND ADULTS
  4. 30.4 SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL CHILDREN’S HEALTH ISSUES
  5. 30.5 CHILDHOOD CANCER
  6. 30.6 DEVELOPMENTAL DEFECTS
  7. 30.7 CHILDHOOD ASTHMA
  8. 30.8 CONCLUSIONS
2. 31 Cost–Benefit Analysis
  1. 31.1 INTRODUCTION TO COST–BENEFIT ANALYSIS
  2. 31.2 BACKGROUND OF CASE STUDY
  3. 31.3 SOCIETAL PERSPECTIVE
  4. 31.4 ANALYTIC TIME HORIZON
  5. 31.5 BASELINE ESTIMATES OF RISK
  6. 31.6 DECISION OPTIONS
  7. 31.7 OPPORTUNITY COST ESTIMATION
  8. 31.8 VALUATION OF IMPROVEMENTS IN HUMAN HEALTH
  9. 31.9 DISCOUNTING FUTURE BENEFITS AND COSTS
  10. 31.10 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
  11. 31.11 INTANGIBLE AND NONQUANTIFIABLE BENEFITS AND COSTS
  12. 31.12 CONCLUSION
3. 32 Precaution in a Multirisk World
  1. 32.1 BACKGROUND
  2. 32.2 RISK AND UNCERTAINTY
  3. 32.3 PRECAUTION AS A PRINCIPLE
  4. 32.4 PRECAUTION AMIDST MULTIPLE RISKS
  5. 32.5 PRECAUTION AS APPLIED
  6. 32.6 CONCLUSIONS
INDEX
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List of Tables

1 Primer on Human and Environmental Risk Assessment
1. TABLE 1.1 An Historical Timeline of Events Having Some Significance on the Evolution of the Environmental Movement (based on information in http://www.zoaks.com/information/envirotimeline/envirotimeline.html)
2. TABLE 1.2 Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PB-PK) Models for Environmental Toxicants
2 Hazard Identification
1. TABLE 2.1 Criteria Often Used in Hazard Identification
2. TABLE 2.2 Categorization of Evidence of Carcinogenocity Used by EPA from 1986 to 1996 (EPA, 1986)
3. TABLE 2.3 IARC Classification of Chemical Carcinogens (IARC, 1999)
4. TABLE 2.4 Weight of Evidence Classification Methods for Developmental Effects; A Noncancer Effect (EPA, 1986)
5. TABLE 2.5 Standard Descriptors (formerly known as categories or classifications) Proposed by EPA in 1999 for Chemicals with Carcinogenic Potential (EPA, 1999)
6. TABLE 2.6 Candidate Tests for Screening Ecological Impact of New Products
7. TABLE 2.7 Environmental Processes and Properties That Influence the Degree of Hazard
8. TABLE 2.8 Solubilities and Partition Coefficients of Various Compounds
9. TABLE 2.9 Water Solubilities of Various Halogenated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
10. TABLE 2.10 Water Solubilities of Various Pesticides
11. TABLE 2.11 Vapor Pressure and Volatilization Half-Life of Various Halogenated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
12. TABLE 2.12 Equilibrium Vapor Pressure and Vapor Density at 30°C
13. TABLE 2.13 Water Solubility, Soil Adsorption Coefficient, and Bioconcentration Factor Data: Experimental and Calculated
14. TABLE 2.14 Solubilities and Partition Coefficients of Various Compounds
15. TABLE 2.15 Partition Coefficients (K_o/w) of Various Chemicals
16. TABLE 2.16 Methods for Estimating the Bioconcentration Factor (BCF) Using Physical Property Data
17. TABLE 2.17 Log BCF and Bioconcentration Potential (DDE = 100) for 30 Organic Chemicals as Determined with the Fathead Minnow in 32-day Exposures
18. TABLE 2.18 Terminology Useful in Understanding Behavior of Chemicals in Aquatic Systems
19. TABLE 2.19 Bioconcentration of Kepone from Water by Estuarine Organisms
20. TABLE 2.20 Hydrolysis Rates (Half-Life) at pH 7.4
21. TABLE 2.21 Test Species Commonly Used for Freshwater Toxicity Tests
4 Exposure Assessment
1. TABLE 4.1 Types of Biological Sampling Used to Characterize Exposure-Related Media and Parameters
2. TABLE 4.2 Some Standard Assumptions Used In Regulatory Assessments (EPA, 1996)
3. TABLE 4.3 Human Cutaneous Permeability Coefficient Values for Some Industrial Chemicals in Aqueous Medium
4. TABLE 4.4 Representative Surface Areas of the Human Body (Adult Male)
5. TABLE 4.5 Absorption Rates of Some Neat Industrial Liquid Chemicals in Human Skin In Vivo
6. TABLE 4.6 Percutaneous Absorption Rates for Chemical Vapors In Vivo
7. TABLE 4.7 Summary of Tap-water Intake by Age
8. TABLE 4.8 Values for Childhood and Adult Soil Ingestion Rates That Have Been Used in Health Risk Assessments Conducted Between 1984 and 2000
9. TABLE 4.9 Summary of Default Exposure Factor Recommendations and Confidence Ratings for Citizens of United States (EPA, 1997)
10. TABLE 4.10 Default Values for Daily Intakes of Breast Milk
11. TABLE 4.11 Daily Inhalation Rates Estimated From Daily Activities
12. TABLE 4.12 U.S. EPA Guiding Principles for Monte Carlo Analysis
13. TABLE 4.13 Risks Calculated for Exposure to Four Halogenated Solvents in Water Using Probabilistic Analysis at the MCL Level and for the 50th and 95th Percentile Exposure
14. TABLE 4.14 Results of Sensitivity Analysis for Tetrachloroethylene Exposure in Household Water
15. TABLE 4.15 Effect of Matrix and Aging on the Bioavailability of Lead from Soil
16. TABLE 4.16 Biomarkers Examined for Selected Occupational and Environmental Chemicals
5 Risk Characterization
1. TABLE 5.1 Key Components of Risk Characterization for Hazard Identification
2. TABLE 5.2 Key Components of Risk Characterization for Exposure Assessment
3. TABLE 5.3 Key Components of Risk Characterization for dose–response Relationship
4. TABLE 5.4 Types of Uncertainty in Risk Characterization
5. TABLE 5.5 Traditional EPA Classification System for Carcinogens
6. TABLE 5.6 Median of Cost/Life-Year Saved Estimates as a Function of Sector of Society and Type of Intervention
7. TABLE 5.7 Maximum Plausible Excess Cancer Risk for Persons at a Residential Site
8. TABLE 5.8 Maximum Plausible Excess Cancer Risk for Workers Exposed at an Industrial Site
9. TABLE 5.9 Estimated Hazard Quotients (HQs) and Hazard Index (HI) for Californians Exposed to MTBE in Drinking Water
10. TABLE 5.10 Age-Specific Margin of Safety (MOS) for the Noncarcinogenic Hazard to the Maximally Exposed Individual (MEI) and Most Likely Exposed Individual (MLEI) at a Residential Site
11. TABLE 5.11 Distribution of Margin of Safety (MOS) for Noncarcinogenic Hazard for Workers at an Industrial Site
12. TABLE 5.12 In Vivo Percutaneous Absorption of Chemicals in Humans and Animals
13. TABLE 5.13 Formaldehyde Risk Estimate for Rats Based on Alternative Mathematical Models (Excess Lifetime Cancers per 100,000)
6 Ecological Risk Assessment: History and Fundamentals
1. TABLE 6.1 Flexibility of the Framework Diagram
2. TABLE 6.2 Who Are Risk Managers?
3. TABLE 6.3 Who Are Risk Assessors?
4. TABLE 6.4 Who Are Interested and Affected Parties?
5. TABLE 6.5 Tiers and Iteration: When Is a Risk Assessment Done?
6. TABLE 6.6 Questions to Ask About Scope and Complexity
7. TABLE 6.7 Questions to Ask About Source, Stressor, and Exposure Characteristics, Ecosystem Characteristics, and Effects [derived in part from Barnthouse and Brown, (1994)]
8. TABLE 6.8 Salmon and Hydropower: Salmon as the Basis for an Assessment Endpoint
9. TABLE 6.9 Sensitivity and Secondary Effects: The Mussels and Fish
10. TABLE 6.10 Examples of Management Goals and Assessment Endpoints
11. TABLE 6.11 Benefits of Conceptual Models
12. TABLE 6.12 Examples of Risk Questions
13. TABLE 6.13 Examples of a Management Goal, Assessment Endpoint, and Measures
14. TABLE 6.14 Evaluating a Study for Usefulness in ERA
15. TABLE 6.15 Considering the Degree of Aggregation in Models
16. TABLE 6.16 Questions for Source Description
17. TABLE 6.17 Additional Questions for Introduction of Biological Stressors
18. TABLE 6.18 General Mechanisms of Transport and Dispersal
19. TABLE 6.19 Questions To Ask in Describing Contact or Co-Occurrence
20. TABLE 6.20 Example of an Exposure Equation: Calculating a Potential Dose via Ingestion
21. TABLE 6.21 Exposure Profile Questions
22. TABLE 6.22 Questions for Stressor–Response Analysis Questions
23. TABLE 6.23 Qualitative Stressor–Response Relationships
24. TABLE 6.24 Median Effect Levels
25. TABLE 6.25 No-Effect Levels Derived from Statistical Hypothesis Testing
26. TABLE 6.26 General Criteria for Causality [Adapted from Fox, (1991)]
27. TABLE 6.27 Koch’s Postulates (Pelczar and Reid, 1972)
28. TABLE 6.28 Examples of Extrapolations to Link Measures of Effect to Assessment Endpoints
29. TABLE 6.29 Questions Related to Selecting Extrapolation Approaches
30. TABLE 6.30 Questions to Consider When Extrapolating from Effects Observed in the Laboratory to Field Effects of Chemicals
31. TABLE 6.31 Questions Addressed by the Stressor–Response Profile
32. TABLE 6.32 Example of Field Methods Used for Risk Estimation
33. TABLE 6.33 Using Qualitative Categories to Estimate Risks of an Introduced Species
34. TABLE 6.34 Applying the Quotient Method
35. TABLE 6.35 Comparing an Exposure Distribution with a Point Estimate of Effects
36. TABLE 6.36 Comparing Cumulative Exposure and Effects Distributions for Chemical Stressors
37. TABLE 6.37 What Are Statistically Significant Effects?
38. TABLE 6.38 Possible Risk Assessment Report Elements
39. TABLE 6.39 Clear, Transparent, Reasonable, and Consistent Risk Characterizations
40. TABLE 6.40 Questions Regarding Risk Assessment Results
41. TABLE 6.41 Suggestions for Successful Risk Communication
7 Hexavalent Chromium in Groundwater: The Importance of Chemistry and Pharmacokinetics in Quantitating Dose and Risk
1. TABLE 7.1 Partial List of Illnesses or Complaints that Plaintiffs from Various Legal Actions have Claimed to be Possibly Caused by Exposure to Cr(VI)
2. TABLE 7.2 Summary of Key Studies Documenting No Observable Adverse Effect Levels (NOAEL) for Oral Cr(VI) Exposure in Animals and Humans
3. TABLE 7.3 Summary of Key Studies Documenting No Effect or Low Effect Levels for Inhalation Cr(VI) Exposures in Animals and Humans
4. TABLE 7.4 Summary of Human Volunteer Studies Involving Ingestion of Water-Soluble Chromium Compounds
5. TABLE 7.5 Possible Sources of Exposure to Contaminated Water
6. TABLE 7.6 Calculation Methods when Conducting Individual-Specific Cr(VI) Assessments
8 Estimating the Value of Research: Illustrative Calculation for Ingested Inorganic Arsenic
1. TABLE 8.1 Low-Dose Risks for Arsenic Ingestion
2. TABLE 8.2 Drinking Water Exposure Assumptions
3. TABLE 8.3 Exposure Assumptions for Inorganic Arsenic in Food
4. TABLE 8.4 Annual Costs and Benefits of Reducing the Arsenic Drinking Water Standard from 50 to 20 μg/L
5. TABLE 8.5 Effect of Alternative Prior Probabilities on Value of Information
6. TABLE 8.6 Effect of Reducing Uncertainty Regarding one Issue on Value of Information from Other Research
9 Risk Assessment of Chromium-Contaminated Soils: Twelve Years of Research to Characterize the Health Hazards
1. TABLE 9.1 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Chromite Ore Processing Residue (COPR)
2. TABLE 9.2 Modifications to Extraction and Analysis Methods for Cr(VI) in Solid Matrices
3. TABLE 9.3 Exposure Scenarios and Pathways Typically Considered at Chromite Ore Processing Residue (COPR) Sites in Kearny, NJ
4. TABLE 9.4 Evaluation of Oxidation Potential of Trivalent Chromium Present in Chromite Ore Processing Residue (COPR)
5. TABLE 9.5 Mean Daily Spot Urine Chromium Concentrations
6. TABLE 9.6 Hexavalent and Trivalent Chromium Toxicity Criteria Used in Chromite Ore Processing Residue (COPR) Risk Assessments
7. TABLE 9.7 Alternative Remediation Standards (ARSs) for Special Remedial Organization-Managed Sites
10 Quantification of Variability and Uncertainty: Case Study of Power Plant Hazardous Air Pollutant Emissions
1. TABLE 10.1 Expressions for Log-Likelihood Functions for Data Belonging to Various Probability Distribution Models
2. TABLE 10.2 Summary of Data Sets and Fitted Distributions for Variability in the Concentration of Hazardous Air Pollutant in Bituminous Coal
3. TABLE 10.3 Summary of Data Sets and Fitted Distributions for Variability in the Partitioning of Hazardous Air Pollutant in Dry-Bottom Wall-Fired Boilers
4. TABLE 10.4 Summary of Data Sets and Fitted Distributions for Variability in the Partitioning of Hazardous Air Pollutant in Fabric Filters
11 Characteristic Time, Characteristic Travel Distance, and Population-Based Potential Dose in a Multimedia Environment: A Case Study
1. TABLE 11.1 List of Transfer Pathways in Multimedia Model
2. TABLE 11.2 Representative Spatially Averaged Landscape Properties
3. TABLE 11.3 List of Exposure Pathways
4. TABLE 11.4 Representative Population Densities and Areas
5. TABLE 11.5 Representative Chemical Properties Used in the Case Study
6. TABLE 11.6 Fugacity, Inventory, Concentration, and Mass Transformed for Each Compartment for a Fixed Region Using TCDD
12 Methods for Setting Occupational Exposure Limits
1. TABLE 12.1 Body Weight and Inhalation Rates of Average Human Adult
2. TABLE 12.2 Some Adjustment Factors Occasionally Used to Derive Occupational Exposure Limits
13 Worker Hazard Posed by Reentry into Pesticide-Treated Foliage: Reassessment of Reentry Levels/Intervals Using Foliar Residue Transfer–Percutaneous Absorption PBPK/PD Models, with Emphasis on Isofenphos and Parathion
1. TABLE 13.1 Summary of Repeated Dose and Subchronic Toxicity Data for Parathion
2. TABLE 13.2 Summary of Repeated Dose and Subchronic Toxicity Data for Isofenphos
3. TABLE 13.3 Reentry Intervals (REI) for Parathion Applied to Citrus at 10 lb AI/acre
4. TABLE 13.4 Calculation of Reentry Intervals According to U.S. EPA¹⁰ Guidelines with Slight Modification
5. TABLE 13.5 Dermal Dose–ChE Response Expressed in Terms of Total Body Surface, Body Weight, and Safety Index
6. TABLE 13.6 Establishment of Safe Levels on Tree Foliage (in μg/cm²) Using the Results of Dermal Dose–ChE Response Studies in Male Rats and Field Reentry Studies
7. TABLE 13.7 Procedure for Establishing Safe Levels (μg/cm²) for Thions + Oxons on Tree Foliage
8. TABLE 13.8 Parameters Used in the Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Models
9. TABLE 13.9 Partition Coefficients Used in the Isofenphos Model
10. TABLE 13.10 Partition Coefficients Used in the Parathion Model
11. TABLE 13.11 V_max, K_m Values Used in Percutaneous Absorption Route, Isofenphos
12. TABLE 13.12 V_max, K_m Values Used in Percutaneous Absorption Route, Parathion
13. TABLE 13.13 Tissue AChE, BChE, and ChE
14. TABLE 13.14 Affinity Constants (K_a) and Phosphorylation Constants (k_p) Used to Describe the Inhibition of Tissue AChE, BChE, and CaE by des N-isopropyl Isofenphos Oxon in the Rat and Human
15. TABLE 13.15 Affinity Constants (K_a) and Phosphorylation Constants (k_p) Used to Describe the Inhibition of Tissue AChE, BChE, and CaE by Paraoxon in the Rat and Human
16. TABLE 13.16 Fate of ¹⁴C-ring Labeled Isofenphos and Parathion Topically Administered to the Rat in Percent of Dose
17. TABLE 13.17 Percentage of Enzyme Inhibited by Topical Application of Isofenphos or Parathion to the Skin of Rats
18. TABLE 13.18 Fate of Isofenphos and Parathion Topically Administered to the Human in Percent of Dose (Output from Models)
19. TABLE 13.19 Percentage of Enzymes Inhibited by Topical Application of Isofenphos or Parathion to the Skin of the Human (Models)
20. TABLE 13.20 Percentage of Enzymes Inhibited by Transfer of Parathion Leaf Residues to Skin of Workers
21. TABLE 13.21 Percentage of Enzymes Inhibited by Transfer of Isofenphos Turf Residues to Skin of Workers
14 Dose Reconstructions for Radionuclides and Chemicals: Case Study Involving Federal Facilities at Oak Ridge, Tennessee
1. TABLE 14.1 Estimated Annual Iodine-131 Releases from Oak Ridge Radioactive Lanthanum Processing
2. TABLE 14.2 Excess Lifetime Risks of Incurring Thyroid Cancer for Females Born in Gailaher Bend Area near Oak Ridge, TN, in 1952, Lived There through 1956, and Ate Various Diets That Included Locally Produced Foods
3. TABLE 14.3 Toxicity Benchmarks for Comparison with Results of Oak Ridge Mercury Dose Reconstruction
4. TABLE 14.4 Summary of Cancer Risks Evaluated in Level II Analysis of PCBs in Environment near Oak Ridge
5. TABLE 14.5 Summary of Noncancer Risks (Hazard Quotients) Evaluated in Level II Analysis of PCBs in Environment near Oak Ridge
6. TABLE 14.6 Estimates of True Hazard Quotients for Adult Recreational and Commercial Fish Consumers Evaluated in Level III Analysis of PCBs in Environment Near Oak Ridge
7. TABLE 14.7 Percentages of Fish-Consuming Populations Receiving a PCB Dose Above the Population Threshold Estimated in the Oak Ridge Dose Reconstruction
8. TABLE 14.8 Summary of Peak Annual Releases for Eight Key Radionuclides Evaluated in Dose Reconstruction for Releases to Clinch River via White Oak Creek
9. TABLE 14.9 Historical Airborne Uranium Release Totals (kg) for Oak Ridge Y-12 Plant and K-25/S-50 Plants Estimated in Oak Ridge Health Studies and Reported by DOE for Same Facilities
10. TABLE 14.10 Summary of Screening Indices from Oak Ridge Health Studies Evaluation of Past Uranium Releases
11. TABLE 14.11 Categorization of Potential Materials of Concern Based on Screening Conducted During Oak Ridge Health Studies
15 Transport of Persistent Organic Pollutants to Animal Products: Fundamental Principles and Application to Health Risk Assessment
1. TABLE 15.1 Physiological and Residue Measurements Required for Calculation Transfer Coefficients
2. TABLE 15.2 Summary of Median Carryover Ratios (COR), Bioconcentration Factors (BCF), and Biotransfer Factors (BTFs) for PCDD/Fs from Diet to Milk in Dairy Cows
3. TABLE 15.3 Predicted Concentrations of PCDDs and PCDFs in Dry Matter of Soil and Feeds Produced at Property Boundary of Proposed Waste-Handling Facility
4. TABLE 15.4 Predicted Concentrations of PCDDs and PCDFs in Fat of Beef and Milk Produced by Cattle at Property Boundary of Proposed Waste-Handling Facility
17 Analysis of Possible Health Risks to Recreational Fishers Due to Ingesting DDT and PCBs in Fish from Palos Verdes Shelf and Cabrillo Pier
1. TABLE 17.1 Comparison of Three Different Methods to Depict Four Different Exposure Assessment Elements
2. TABLE 17.2 Fish Species and Species Groups Included in the Analyses
3. TABLE 17.3 Distribution Functions for Various Exposure Factors Used in the Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel (CPFV) Analysis
4. TABLE 17.4 Distribution Functions for Various Exposure Factors Used in the Private Boat Analysis
5. TABLE 17.5 Distribution Functions for Various Exposure Factors Used in the Cabrillo Pier Analysis
6. TABLE 17.6 Lifetime Exposure Factors for Monte Carlo Analysis
7. TABLE 17.7 Annual Exposure Factors for Monte Carlo Analysis
8. TABLE 17.8 Trip-Specific Exposure Factors for Monte Carlo Analysis
9. TABLE 17.9 Results of the Analysis for Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel (CPFV) Anglers at the Palos Verdes Shelf
10. TABLE 17.10 Results of the Analysis for Private Boat Anglers at the Palos Verdes Shelf
11. TABLE 17.11 Results of the Analysis for Anglers at Cabrillo Pier
12. TABLE 17.12 Description of the Approach for Conducting the Sensitivity Analyses
13. TABLE 17.13 Alternative Distributions for tDDT and PCB Concentrations in White Croaker at Cabrillo Pier
14. TABLE 17.14 Sensitivity Analysis Results for Cancer Risks for Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel (CPFV) Anglers
15. TABLE 17.15 Sensitivity Analysis Results for Noncancer Hazards for Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel (CPFV) Anglers
16. TABLE 17.16 Sensitivity Analysis Results for Cancer Risks for Cabrillo Pier Anglers
17. TABLE 17.17 Sensitivity Analysis Results for Noncancer Hazards for Cabrillo Pier Anglers
18. TABLE 17.18 Profiles of CPFV Anglers with Total Risks at the 50th Percentile (Total Risk = 5 × 10⁻⁸)
19. TABLE 17.19 Profiles of CPFV Anglers with Total Risks at the 95th Percentile (Total Risk = 8 × 10⁻⁷)
20. TABLE 17.20 Profiles of Simulated Private Boat Anglers with Total Risks at the 50th Percentile (Total Risk = 3 × 10⁻⁷)
21. TABLE 17.21 Profiles of Simulated Private Boat Anglers with Total Risks at the 95th Percentile (Total Risk = 3 × 10⁻⁶)
22. TABLE 17.22 Profiles of Cabrillo Pier Anglers with Total Risks at the 50th Percentile (Total Risk = 2 × 10⁻⁷)
23. TABLE 17.23 Profiles of Cabrillo Pier Anglers with Total Risks at the 95th Percentile (Total Risk = 3 × 10⁻⁶)
24. TABLE 17.24 Comparison of Risk Estimates and Exposure Factor Values from Risk Assessments for Palos Verdes Shelf Fish Consumers
25. TABLE 17.25 Comparison of Risk Estimates and Exposure Factor Values from Risk Assessments for Cabrillo Pier Fish Consumers
18 Qualitative Health Risk Assessment of Natural Rubber Latex in Consumer Products
1. TABLE 18.1 Comparison of Reported vs. Actual Incidences of NRL Allergy in Health-Care Workers
2. TABLE 18.2 Summary of Selected Studies Reporting Latex Allergy Incidence in Health-Care Workers
3. TABLE 18.3 Estimates of Background NRL Allergy Incidence in the General Population
4. TABLE 18.4 Summary of Studies That Meet Minimum Design Criteria
19 Determining Values: A Critical Step in Assessing Ecological Risk
1. TABLE 19.1 Functional Components of a Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystem in New Guinea
2. TABLE 19.2 Ecologically Relevant Attributes of the Functional Components Identified for a Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystem in New Guinea
3. TABLE 19.3 Functional Components of the Food Webs for Three General Ecosystem Types
4. TABLE 19.4 Representative Organisms for Each of the Functional Components of the Pajarito Plateau Ecosystem
20 Comparison of Aquatic Ecological Risk Assessments at a Former Zinc Smelter and a Former Wood Preservative Site
1. TABLE 20.1 Endpoints and Risk Characterization Approach for Aquatic Ecological Risk Assessment
2. TABLE 20.2 Summary of Toxicity Results for Ceriodaphnia Test
3. TABLE 20.3 Relative Abundances of Fishes Captured at Site and Reference Areas by Species
4. TABLE 20.4 Relative Abundances of Fishes Captured at Site Stations and Reference Areas in Percentages
5. TABLE 20.5 Comparison of Sediment Quality Values (SQVs) (mg/kg)
6. TABLE 20.6 Comparison of Elements of Ecological Risk Assessments at Former Zinc Smelter Site and Former Wood Preservative Site
21 Integration of Risk Assessment and Natural Resource Damage Assessment: Case Study of Lavaca Bay
1. TABLE 21.1 Summary of Data Needs from Recreational Anglers
2. TABLE 21.2 Results of Texas Saltwater Fish Survey: Grams per Day of Self-Caught Fish Consumed
3. TABLE 21.3 Summary of Consumption Studies of Marine Recreational Anglers
4. TABLE 21.4 Species Composition of Self-Caught Fish Consumed by Source
22 Using Probabilistic Risk Assessment Methods to Predict Effects of Pesticides on Aquatic Systems and Waterfowl That Use Them
1. TABLE 22.1 Invertebrate Taxa Commonly Found in Prairie Sloughs
2. TABLE 22.2 Macroinvertebrate Prey Selected by Flightless Ducklings Foraging in Prairie Pothole Region
3. TABLE 22.3 Summary Statistics for Application Rates
4. TABLE 22.4 Characteristics of Application Efficiency Distribution
5. TABLE 22.5 Depth and Permanency of Water Body Types
6. TABLE 22.6 Summary Statistics for Water Column Concentrations
7. TABLE 22.7 Summary of Toxicity Data for Carbaryl
8. TABLE 22.8 Summary of Laboratory Studies of Toxicity of Deltamethrin and Cypermethrin
9. TABLE 22.9 Estimated l ethal Concentrations (µg/L) for Percentages of Aquatic Species Populations Exposed to Carbaryl in Laboratory Toxicity Tests
10. TABLE 22.10 Estimated Concentrations (µg/L) Lethal to Percentage of Population of Aquatic Species Exposed to Deltamethrin in
23 Methodology for Assessing Risk to Birds Following Application of Sprayable Pesticide to Citrus: Case Study Involving Chlorpyrifos
1. TABLE 23.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Chlorpyrifos
2. TABLE 23.2 Laboratory Acute Oral Toxicity (LD₅₀) Values for Chlorpyrifos to Various Bird Species
3. TABLE 23.3 Laboratory Acute Dietary Toxicity (LC₅₀) Values for Chlorpyrifos to Various Bird Species
4. TABLE 23.4 Summary of Samples Collected from Study Plots during EBA Study Number 079717 Conducted at Harlan Ranch in Clovis, CA, July 1997
5. TABLE 23.5 Measured and Corrected Residue Means, Standard Deviations, and Geometric Means for Samples Collected from Study Plots at Harlan Ranch Near Clovis, CA, July 1997
6. TABLE 23.6 Pinned Larvae and Cricket Residues Normalized to Initial Body Weights
7. TABLE 23.7 One-Time Consumption^a of Food Types Used and Required for Individual to Attain LD₅₀ If Consumption Occurred at Time of Peak Residues
8. TABLE 23.8 Risk Quotients Derived from Environmental Concentrations on Food Items Measured Divided by Reported LC₅₀ Values for Various Bird Species
25 Life-Cycle Impact Analysis: A Challenge for Risk Analysts
1. TABLE 25.1 EIO-LCA Supply Chain Effects of Producing $1 Million of Electricity in United States, 1992
2. TABLE 25.2 Top Ten Contributing Sectors to Conventional Pollutant and Global Warming Releases Associated with Producing $1 Million of Electricity in United States
3. TABLE 25.3 Total U.S. Emissions and Estimated External Costs of Various Pollutants, 1992
4. TABLE 25.4 Ten Commodity Sectors with Largest PM Emissions
5. TABLE 25.5 Social Damages per Metric Ton of Sulfur Dioxide Air Emissions
6. TABLE 25.6 Unit Social Damage Estimates from Air Emissions of Environmental Externalities
7. TABLE 25.7 Estimated External Air Pollution Damage from $100,000 of Production (in dollars) from Eight Sample Commodity Sectors
8. TABLE 25.8 Ten Commodity Sectors with Highest External Air Pollution Cost Percentages in U.S. Economy, 1992
9. TABLE 25.9 Ten Commodity Sectors with Highest Total External Air Pollution Costs in U.S. Economy, 1992
10. TABLE 25.10 Top Purchases Associated with $100 Million of Demand for Eating-and-Drinking Establishments
11. TABLE 25.11 Top Contributing External Cost Sectors Associated with $100 Million of Output from Eating and Drinking Establishments (in millions of dollars.)
12. TABLE 25.12 Low Bids for U.S. 231 over the White River in Indiana
13. TABLE 25.13 Environmental Effects of Steel-Reinforced Concrete (Concrete + Reinforcing) and Steel Production for an Example Equivalent Bridge Girder Design: Summary of Resource Inputs
14. TABLE 25.14 Environmental Effects of Steel-Reinforced Concrete (Concrete + Reinforcing) and Steel Production for Example Equivalent Bridge Girder Design: Summary of Environmental Outputs
15. TABLE 25.15 Environmental Effects of Paint (for Eight Repaint Jobs) and Steel Manufacturing for a Typical Highway Bridge: Summary of Resource Inputs
16. TABLE 25.16 Environmental Effects of Paint (for Eight Repaint Jobs) and Steel Manufacturing for Typical Highway Bridge: Summary of Environmental Outputs
17. TABLE 25.17 Resource Inputs for Manufacturing Steel Girders for 290,000 “Average” Bridges as Percentage of Annual National Totals (U.S.)
18. TABLE 25.18 Environmental Outputs for Manufacturing Steel Girders for 290,000 “Average” Bridges as Percentage of Annual National Totals (U.S.)
19. TABLE 25.19 Summary of Environmental Impact of Steel versus Steel-Reinforced Concrete Girders for Typical Highway Bridge
20. TABLE 25.20 Facility Data: SUN Company, Philadelphia Refinery
21. TABLE 25.21 Facility and Atmospheric Information, Sun Company
22. TABLE 25.22 Threshold Values of Noncarcinogenic and Acute Health Risks
23. TABLE 25.23 Benzene Concentrations for Accident and Chronic Emissions
24. TABLE 25.24 Lifetime Individual Risk
25. TABLE 25.25 AIRS Reporting Threshold Requirements for Facilities: Criteria Pollutant Emission (short tons/year)
26. TABLE 25.26 Summary of Adjustments Made Based on Emissions Trends Report Data
27 Trust, Emotion, Sex, Politics, and Science: Surveying the Risk-Assessment Battlefield
1. TABLE 27.1 Some Ways of Expressing Mortality Risks
2. TABLE 27.2 Percentage of People Who Agreed to Support a New Nuclear Power Plant in Their Community
29 Misconceptions About the Causes of Cancer
1. TABLE 29.1 Review of Epidemiological Studies on Cancer Showing Protection by Consumption of Fruits and Vegetables
2. TABLE 29.2 Carcinogenicity Status of Natural Pesticides Tested in Rodents
3. TABLE 29.3 Carcinogenicity in Rodents of Natural Chemicals in Roasted Coffee
4. TABLE 29.4 Proportion of Chemicals Evaluated as Carcinogenic
5. TABLE 29.5 Cancer Risk Assessment Without Conducting a 2-Year Bioassay
6. TABLE 29.6 Ranking Possible Carcinogenic Hazards from Average U.S. Exposures to Rodent Carcinogens