Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Preface

About the Companion Website

Chapter 1: Available Energy Resources

1.1 Civilization and the Search for Sustainable Energy
1.2 The Planet's Energy Resources and Energy Consumption
1.3 The Greenhouse Effect and its Influence on Quality of Life and the Ecosphere
1.4 Nonrenewable Energy Resources
1.5 Renewable Energy Sources
1.6 Energy Storage
1.7 Energy Ethics
Problems
Multiple Choice Questions
Bibliography

Chapter 2: Chemistry Background

2.1 Reversible Reactions and Chemical Equilibrium
2.2 Acid–Base Chemistry
2.4 Chemical Kinetics
2.5 Electrochemistry (Oxidation–Reduction Reactions)
2.6 Organic Chemistry
2.7 Polymer Chemistry
2.8 Photochemistry
2.9 Plasma Chemistry
Problems
Multiple Choice Questions
Thermodynamic Questions
Photochemistry Questions
Plasma Chemistry Questions
Chemical Equilibrium
Acid-Base Chemistry
Kinetics
Organic Chemistry
Polymers
Bibliography

Chapter 3: Hydrogen Production

3.1 Electrolysis
3.2 Thermolysis (Thermal Reactions Involving Solar Energy)
3.3 Photovoltaic Electrolysis
3.4 Plasma ARC Decomposition
3.5 Thermochemical Process (Thermal Decompositions by Processes other than Solar Energy)
3.6 Photocatalysis
3.7 Biomass Conversion
3.8 Gasification
3.9 High-Temperature Electrolysis
3.10 Miscellaneous Methods
3.11 Comparative Efficiencies
Problems
References

Chapter 4: Hydrogen Properties

4.1 Occurrence of Hydrogen, Properties, and Use
4.2 Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier
4.3 Hydrogen Storage
Multiple Choice Questions
Bibliography

Chapter 5: Hydrogen Infrastructure and Technology

5.1 Production of Hydrogen
5.2 Hydrogen Transportation, Storage, and Distribution
5.3 Hydrogen Safety
5.4 Hydrogen Technology Assessment
Multiple Choice Questions
Bibliography

Chapter 6: Batteries

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Definitions
6.3 Working Units
6.4 Examples of Selected Batteries
6.5 Conducting Polymer Batteries (Organic Batteries)
6.6 Practical Considerations
6.7 Electric Transportation
Problems
Multiple Choice Questions
Bibliography

Chapter 7: Fuel Cell Essentials

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Definition of Fuel
7.3 What is a Fuel Value?
7.4 Why do we Want to use Hydrogen as Fuel?
7.5 Classification of Fuel Cells
7.6 Open Circuit Voltages of Fuel Cells
7.7 Thermodynamic Estimate of Fuel Cell Voltage
7.8 Efficiency of a Fuel Cell
7.9 Efficiency and Temperature
7.10 Influence of Electrode Material on Current Output
7.11 Pressure Dependence of Fuel Cell Voltage
7.12 Thermodynamic Prediction of Heat Generated in a Fuel Cell
7.13 Fuel Cell Management
7.14 Rate of Consumption of Hydrogen and Oxygen
7.15 Rate of Production of Water
Problem
7.16 Fuel Crossover Problem
7.17 Polymer Membranes for PEMFC
7.18 Parts of PEMFC and Fabrication
7.19 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs)
7.20 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)
7.21 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
7.22 Flowchart for Fuel Cell Development
7.23 Relative Merits of Fuel Cells
7.24 Fuel Cell Technology
7.25 Fuel Cells for Special Applications
7.26 Fuel Cell Reformers
7.27 Fuel Cell System Architecture
Appendix 7
Problems
Multiple Choice Questions
Bibliography

Chapter 8: Fuel Cells Applications

8.1 Stationary Power Production
8.2 Fuel Cell Transportation
8.3 Micropower Systems
8.4 Mobile and Residential Power Systems
8.5 Fuel Cells for Space and Military Applications
8.6 Conclusion
Multiple Choice Questions
Bibliography

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1: Available Energy Resources

Figure 1.1 Energy pyramid.
Figure 1.2 US energy use by sector.
Figure 1.3 Consumption by type of energy source.
Figure 1.4 Solar radiation.
Figure 1.5 Global atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide over time.
Figure 1.6 Oil reserves in the world in 2005.
Figure 1.7 World petroleum production.
Figure 1.8 The world's nuclear power.
Figure 1.9 Electricity cost by different methods.
Figure 1.10 Different methods of generation of electricity (2003).
Figure 1.11 Change in oil price in the United States during 1998–2006.
Figure 1.12 Thermal radiation contour. Outgoing thermal radiation (W/m²) at the top of the atmosphere in January 1988 (7:30), calculated without clouds.
Figure 1.13 Thermal radiation contour. Outgoing thermal radiation (W/m²) at the top of the atmosphere in January 1988 (7:30), with cloud cover. The cloud cover radically changes this zonal distribution by preventing a part of the thermal radiation, up to 60 W/m².
Figure 1.14 Solar spectrum.
Figure 1.15 Intrinsic semiconductor.
Figure 1.16 Boron doped semiconductor.
Figure 1.17 Phosphorus-doped silicon.
Figure 1.18 p–n diode with forward bias.
Figure 1.19 Electron and hole flow in the forward-bias condition.
Figure 1.20 Current flow under forward- and reverse-bias conditions. For silicon, the current flow starts at about 0.5 V and gives very high currents at 0.7 V.
Figure 1.21 Solar panels used for conversion of sunlight to direct current (DC electricity).
Figure 1.23 Second-generation solar cell materials with solar cell size marked on the bar chart.
Figure 1.22 First-generation solar cell.
Figure 1.24 Chemical routes for solar energy.
Figure 1.25 Space charge regions when n- or p-type semiconductors are in contact with an electrolyte. E_v and E_c are the valence and conduction bands energy levels.
Figure 1.26 Photosynthetic energy cycles.
Figure 1.27 Geothermal energy hot springs in Bridgeport, CA.
Figure 1.28 Geothermal energy.
Figure 1.29 Corn field for ethanol production.
Figure 1.30 Hydroelectric power generators at Nagarjuna dam and hydroelectric plant, India.

Chapter 2: Chemistry Background

Figure 2.1 Conversion of a reactant and yield of a product with time. At equilibrium, the concentration of reactant and product remain constant.
Figure 2.2 The rates of the forward and reverse reactions with time. At equilibrium, the rates of the forward and reverse reactions become the same.
Figure 2.3 Equilibrium conditions of dissolving of silver sulfate in water.
Figure 2.4 The Haber process for ammonia synthesis.
Figure 2.5 A hydrogen atom and a positive hydrogen ion (a proton).
Figure 2.6 H⁺ concentrations and pH values of some common substances at 25°C.
Figure 2.7 (a) When the stoppers are pulled out, the mass in the surroundings compresses the system and does a positive amount of work on the system. (b) When the stoppers are pulled out, the system lifts a mass in the surroundings and the system does work on the surroundings.
Figure 2.8 Concentration versus time for the decomposition of hydrogen iodide into the elements.
Figure 2.9 Three different average rates for the decomposition of hydrogen iodide described in the example on average rates.
Figure 2.10 Different types of rates based on the decrease of the concentration of a reactant with time. R_Init.: initial rate; R_Inst.: instantaneous rate.
Figure 2.11 General pattern for radioactive decay and first-order reactions. In the case of radioactive decay, the reactant is a radioactive isotope emitting subatomic particles, for example, α, β, and/or γ-rays.
Figure 2.12 Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide as an example of a reaction based on a first-order rate law. The first “snapshot” is taken at the beginning (t = 0) and the second after one half-life (t_1/2 = 10 h), representing the reaction mixture at elevated temperatures when all three substances are in the gaseous state.
Figure 2.13 Concentration versus time dependence for the zero-, first-, and second-order reactions with straight-line plots.
Figure 2.14 Different scenarios for the collision of reactant molecules.
Figure 2.15 Energy/reaction coordinate diagram for the example of an exothermic reaction (uncatalyzed). The reaction kinetics is related to how the reactants are converted to the products, that is, the reaction pathway. Instead of activated complex, the term transition state is also frequently used.
Figure 2.16 Distribution of kinetic energies of molecules at two different temperatures T₁ < T₂. The colored areas below curves correspond to number of molecules that react.
Figure 2.17 The effect of a catalyst on a given reaction: it lowers the activation energy of that reaction.
Figure 2.18 In this scheme, it is shown how the shape of the enzyme (here sucrase) fits with that of a substrate (here, sucrose) to catalyze the reaction, splitting of the substrate into smaller compounds as products (here glucose and fructose).
Figure 2.19 Heterogeneous formation of ammonia from hydrogen and nitrogen.
Figure 2.20 The Wilkinson catalyst—an example of a homogeneous catalyst.
Figure 2.21 Daniel cell.
Figure 2.22 Carbon atoms can form straight and branched chains and rings.
Figure 2.23 Classification of organic compounds. Hydrocarbons are discussed in more detail in Sections 2.6.2–2.6.6 and organic compounds with functional groups in Sections 2.6.7.1–2.6.7.7.
Figure 2.24 Three representations of pentane.
Figure 2.25 Alkanes obtained from the fractionation of crude oil.
Figure 2.26 Reactions of ethylene as an example of an alkene and the products that can be formed.
Figure 2.27 Catalytic hydrogenation of an alkene.
Figure 2.28 Two natural polymers of glucose: cellulose and starch (F13-020 from Olmsted).
Figure 2.29 Four representations of polyethylene.
Figure 2.30 Polymers can form three types of overall structures: (a) linear, (b) branched, and (c) cross-linked.
Figure 2.31 Stress/strain diagram for polymers.
Figure 2.32 The exfoliated (left) and intercalated (right) forms of clay/polymer composites. The gray sheets represent the clay, while the chains represent the polymer.
Figure 2.33 Mechanism of chain-addition polymerization.
Figure 2.34 Mechanism of step-growth polymerizations for bifunctional and difunctional monomers.
Figure 2.35 The molecular weight distribution (MWD) of three polymer samples.
Figure 2.36 Fringed micelle model representing ordered, crystalline and unordered, amorphous regions in a polymer.
Figure 2.37 Illustration of microscopic behavior of polymer chains at the glass transition and melting temperature of the polymer.
Figure 2.38 Hydrogen bonding (dotted) between two polymer chains in a polyamide, that is, nylon.
Figure 2.39 The three types of tacticities, which can occur in polymers of monosubstituted ethylene, such as propylene shown here.
Figure 2.40 Universal resin identification code.
Figure 2.41 Examples of electroconductive polymers.
Figure 2.42 The photoabsorption spectrum of water vapor.
Figure 2.43 Solar flux outside the atmosphere and at sea level, respectively. The emission of a blackbody at 6000 K is also shown for comparison. The species responsible for light absorption in the various regions (O₃, H₂O, etc.) are also shown.
Figure 2.44 Atmospheric regions of maximum light absorption of solar radiation in the atmosphere by various atomic and molecular species as a function of altitude and wavelength with the sun overhead.
Figure 2.45 Minimal scheme for photochemical splitting of water with a photochemical sensitizer S.
Figure 2.46 Energy band scheme for intrinsic conductivity in a semiconductor.
Figure 2.47 The absorption spectrum of liquid water.
Figure 2.48 Direct biophotolysis.
Figure 2.49 Indirect biophotolysis.
Figure 2.50 Photofermentation.
Figure 2.51 Typical plasmas characterized by their number density, electron energy, and Debye length.
Figure 2.52 Voltage–current characteristics of a DC electric discharge E.
Figure 2.53 Temperature and pressure domain for equilibrium and nonequilibrium plasmas for DC discharges E.
Figure 2.54 Reactions taking place in a plasma processing reactor.
Figure 2.55 Some methods for exciting high-frequency discharges.

Chapter 3: Hydrogen Production

Figure 3.1 Single electrolyzer.
Figure 3.2 Solar method of decomposition of water splitting. (a) Central receiver/reactor tower with heliostats. (b) Modular dish-mounted receiver/reactor.
Figure 3.3 Thermochemical method of producing hydrogen using chemical catalysts.
Figure 3.4 Photovoltaic splitting of water to hydrogen.
Figure 3.5 Photocatalysis of water decomposition.
Figure 3.6 Photocatalytic hydrogen generation.
Figure 3.7 Hydrogen generation under different photocatalysts. TS₂ = TiO₂–SnO₂ (Ti:Sn = 98:2), TS₅ = TiO₂–SnO₂ (Ti:Sn = 95:5), and TS₁₀ = TiO₂–SnO₂ (Ti:Sn = 90:10). Ratios are by atomic weight. Pd–TS₂, Pd–TS₅, and Pd–TS₁₀ refer to palladium-coated photocatalysts.
Figure 3.8 Hydrogen production using a photocatalyst, Ru/Cu_0.25Ag_0.25In_0.5 ZnS₂. The aqueous solution is a mixture K₂SO₃ and Na₂S. Notice the bubbles produced using a solar simulator (AM-1.5).
Figure 3.9 Single-walled carbon-nanotube-coated TiO₂ photocatalyst for hydrogen evolution. Pt/TiO₂, platinum-coated titanium dioxide; SWNT/TiO₂, single-walled carbon-nanotube-coated TiO₂; and GS/TiO₂, graphite-silica-coated TiO₂.
Figure 3.10 Pyrolytic plant for biomass conversion.
Figure 3.11 Four gasification methods.
Figure 3.12 High-temperature electrolysis using porous electrodes. Electrolyte Yittria stabilized Zirconia.
Figure 3.13 MOXIE for converting carbon dioxide to oxygen by high-temperature fuel cell.
Figure 3.14 MOXIE and its functions.
Figure 3.15 Hydrogen gas production efficiencies.
Figure 3.16 Correlation between hydrogen content of the fuel and environmental pollution factor.

Chapter 4: Hydrogen Properties

Figure 4.1 Atomic structure of protium.
Figure 4.2 Hydrogen bonding (indicated by dashed lines) in water, (H₂O); and ammonia (NH₃).
Figure 4.3 The largest consumers of hydrogen today.
Figure 4.4 Hydrogen/gasoline properties.
Figure 4.5 Hydrogen light-weight polymer tanks.
Figure 4.6 Typical high-pressure hydrogen storage system.
Figure 4.7 Comparison data for LH₂ and gasoline storage.
Figure 4.8 Liquid hydrogen storage system.
Figure 4.9 Metal hydride–hydrogen storage.
Figure 4.10 Decomposition–formation cycle of NaAlH₄.
Figure 4.11 Multiwalled nanotubes structure.
Figure 4.12 Single-wall nanotubes structure.
Figure 4.13 SWNT and MWNT are allotropes of carbon.

Chapter 5: Hydrogen Infrastructure and Technology

Figure 5.1 Hydrogen infrastructure.
Figure 5.2 Hydrogen collection by displacement of air.
Figure 5.3 Renewable energy sources.
Figure 5.4 Wind power conversion into commercial-grade hydrogen and oxygen.
Figure 5.5 Types of biomass for conversion to fuel.
Figure 5.6 Typical landfill gas power generation family.
Figure 5.7 Typical landfill view.
Figure 5.8 Typical landfill gas production.
Figure 5.9 LFG cogeneration plant integrated with hydrogen production.
Figure 5.10 Hydrogen refueling station.
Figure 5.11 The Hubbert curve.

Chapter 6: Batteries

Figure 6.1 Battery made with Zn and Cu metal with electrolytes.
Figure 6.2 Specific energy available with different secondary batteries. NiCd = Nickel–Cadmium, NiMH = Nickel–metal hydride, LTO = Lithium titanate, LFP = Lithium iron phosphate, LMO = Lithium manganese dioxide, NMC = Lithium Nickel manganese cobalt oxide, LCO = Lithium cobalt oxide, and NCA = Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide.
Figure 6.3 Conducting polymer batteries. (a) M is anode metal (typically Li or Zn), M⁺A⁻ is the electrolyte filling the anode and cathode, P⁺A⁻ is conducting polymer is in the oxidized state, and P is conducting polymer in the reduced state. (b) P₁⁻M⁺ is the reduced state of conducting polymer and P₂⁺A⁻ is the oxidized state of a conducting polymer. P₁ is oxidized state of the polymer and P₂ is the reduced state of the polymer.
Figure 6.4 Organic battery while charging and discharging, the electron and ion movement paths are shown. The anode compartment and cathode compartment are separated by the center plate (membrane).
Figure 6.5 Applications of batteries.
Figure 6.6 Portable 12 V 50 A/10-h deep cycle sealed lead-acid battery.
Figure 6.7 Lithium-ion battery.
Figure 6.8 2012 Chevrolet Volt T-shaped lithium-ion battery nickel–metal hydride.
Figure 6.9 General motors EV1.
Figure 6.10 The first electric vehicle built in 1897.
Figure 6.11 Simplified block diagram for electric vehicle.
Figure 6.12 Ford focus electric car.
Figure 6.13 Propulsion options.
Figure 6.14 Electric-drive options.
Figure 6.15 Tesla EV electric motors location.

Chapter 7: Fuel Cell Essentials

Figure 7.1 Simplified illustrative picture of a fuel cell.
Figure 7.2 Basic sandwich configuration of compact fuel cell.
Figure 7.3 A sketch of Grove's gas battery (1839), which produced a voltage of about 1 V.
Figure 7.4 Fuel cell reactions in systems where hydrogen is the fuel.
Figure 7.5 Carbon fuel cell. A solid fuel is converted to electrical power.
Figure 7.6 CFC with (a) molten hydroxide electrolyte and (b) molten carbonate electrolyte.
Figure 7.7 Voltage losses in the operation of a fuel cell.
Figure 7.8 Tafel curve.
Figure 7.9 Expected open circuit voltage of fuel cells at different temperatures.
Figure 7.10 Nafion® structure.
Figure 7.11 Disulfonated polymers. (1) sulfonated poly(arylene ether sulfone); (2) sulfophenylated polysulfone; (3) sulfonated styrene–ethylene–butylene–styrene (SEBS) block copolymer; (4) sulfonated styrene–ethylene interpolymer.
Figure 7.12 Conductivity of disulfonated monomer.
Figure 7.13 Water uptake by BPSH at 30°C.
Figure 7.14 Process for the preparation of PEMs by radiation.
Figure 7.15 Hydrogen and hydroxyl ion movement in the membrane. Although Nafion membrane has been successfully used in PEMFC, there are several new membranes that can stand high temperatures have been developed. Phosphoric acid-doped polybenzimidazole (PBI) can be used up to temperatures of 200°C. A membrane that requires new humidification has been developed by Celtec using PBI and phosphoric acid. It has higher tolerance against carbon monoxide gas. Gyner Electrochemical Systems developed perflurosulfonic acid that has higher conductivity than Nafion. Thus, the activity in membranes has been focused on high temperature operations with lower relative humidity, preferably at less than 10%.
Figure 7.16 A view of a single PEMFC.
Figure 7.17 Bipolar plate.
Figure 7.18 Stacked PEMFC.
Figure 7.19 Current–voltage curves for PEMFC with different amounts of RuO₂.
Figure 7.20 Flow fields design.
Figure 7.21 Alkaline fuel cell.
Figure 7.22 Alkaline fuel cell used in space missions.
Figure 7.23 Molten carbonate fuel cell.
Figure 7.24 Fuel cell voltage and current of PEMFC in the presence of CO.
Figure 7.25 Solid oxide fuel cell.
Figure 7.26 Tubular SOFC.
Figure 7.27 SOFC stacking arrangement.
Figure 7.28 Current–voltage curve for SOFC fuel cell.
Figure 7.29 Power density curve for SOFC fuel cell.
Figure 7.30 Flowchart for developing and designing a fuel cell.
Figure 7.31 Fifty-nine-megawatt Gyeonggi Green Energy fuel cell park in Hwasung City.
Figure 7.32 Fuel cell energy completes 14.9 MW fuel cell park in Connecticut (USA).
Figure 7.33 Market share of carbon dioxide generating vehicles. ICE (internal combustion engine), BEV (battery-operated vehicle), FCEV (fuel cell electric vehicle), HEV (hybrid electric vehicles) and REEV (range extender electric vehicle).
Figure 7.34 Micropower system configuration.
Figure 7.35 Fuel cell power system principal configuration.
Figure 7.36 Fuel processor temperature requirements.
Figure 7.37 Fuel cell power system for transportation.
Figure 7.38 Fuel cell power system functions and features.
Figure 7.39 Methanol fuel processor subsystem.
Figure 7.40 Gasoline fuel cell vehicle architecture.

Chapter 8: Fuel Cells Applications

Figure 8.1 Energy conversion for transportation.
Figure 8.2 Fuel-cell vehicle design option.
Figure 8.3 Well-to-wheel diagram.
Figure 8.4 Fuel cell fork lift.
Figure 8.5 The fuel cell/battery hybrid railway vehicle. http://w3.gorge.net/eclipse/projects/proj_wtw.html.
Figure 8.6 The chemical reaction in micropower PEMFC.
Figure 8.7 Low content direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) active system.

List of Tables

Chapter 1: Available Energy Resources

Table 1.1 Pathways for the dissipation of solar radiation
Table 1.2 Polluted air: causes and remedies
Table 1.3 Oil reserves by country in billions of barrels
Table 1.4 World natural gas reserves: world proven natural gas reserves by country, 2005 and 2006
Table 1.5 Proved recoverable coal reserves at end-2006 (million tons)
Table 1.6 Known recoverable resources of uranium

Chapter 2: Chemistry Background

Table 2.1 Acid dissociation constants, K_a, for some acids (25°C)
Table 2.2 Chemical thermodynamic properties at 298.15 K and 1 bar
Table 2.3 Molar heat capacities at constant pressure as a function of temperature from 300 to 1800 K: $c02-math-113$
Table 2.4 Table of redox reactions at 25°C
Table 2.5 Names, structures, and formulas for representative hydrocarbons
Table 2.6 Alkanes with up to 10 C-atoms and some of their branched isomers
Table 2.7 Names and structures of alkyl and aryl groups
Table 2.8 Overview of organic compounds with functional groups
Table 2.9 The formulas and names of some simple polymers
Table 2.10 Overview of major chain-addition polymers
Table 2.11 Some preferred monomer/initiator combinations for chain-addition polymerizations
Table 2.12 Important step-growth polymers
Table 2.13 The glass transition and melting temperatures of several of the above-discussed polymers [55]
Table 2.14 Energies of electromagnetic radiation
Table 2.15 Photoabsorption cross sections for water vapor
Table 2.16 Estimates of integrated solar flux values at the earth's surface as a function of wavelength interval and solar zenith angle within specific wavelength intervals^a
Table 2.17 Semiconductor energy gaps between the valence and conduction bands
Table 2.18 Physical and chemical processes involving excited hydrogen atoms (H*)

Chapter 3: Hydrogen Production

Table 3.1 Hydrogen production by thermochemical process
Table 3.2 Photocatalytic production of hydrogen
Table 3.3 Photocatalytic evolution of hydrogen from H₂S
Table 3.4 Hydrogen production—important benefits and challenges

Chapter 4: Hydrogen Properties

Table 4.1 Atomic properties of hydrogen
Table 4.2 Physical properties of hydrogen
Table 4.3 Energy content for 1 kg of hydrogen in the reaction with oxygen to form water
Table 4.4 Comparative fuels properties
Table 4.5 Specific energy value of compressed gases and gasoline
Table 4.6 Hydrogen storage material
Table 4.7 Key properties of metal hydrides suiTable for gas-phase applications

Chapter 5: Hydrogen Infrastructure and Technology

Table 5.1 Fire hazard characteristics

Chapter 6: Batteries

Table 6.1 Standard potentials of redox reactions
Table 6.2 Batteries and their parameters
Table 6.4 Secondary batteries
Table 6.5 List of conducting polymers for battery applications
Table 6.6 Battery characteristics: primary batteries and their characteristics
Table 6.7 Battery characteristics: secondary (rechargeable or traction) batteries and their characteristics
Table 6.8 Nissan Leaflet

Chapter 7: Fuel Cell Essentials

Table 7.1 Fuel values of different chemicals
Table 7.2 Fuel values of series of alcohols
Table 7.3 Fuel values of biodiesels
Table 7.4 Fuel value of diesels
Table 7.5 Standard electrode potentials at 25°C^a
Table 7.6 Standard free energy of formation of selected fuel cell substances at 25°C
Table 7.7 Free energies and enthalpies of fuel cell reaction at different temperatures
Table 7.8 Exchange current densities for hydrogen in acid electrolyte
Table 7.10 Exchange current densities at silicon membranes
Table 7.11 High-pressure cylinder technical specifications
Table 7.12 Estimated consumption of hydrogen in the fuel cell for selected currents and durations
Table 7.13 Power output and hydrogen consumption in PEMFC
Table 7.14 Modifications of polymer membranes
Table 7.15 Commercially available PEMs and their properties
Table 7.16 PEMFC performance with modified membranes
Table 7.17 AFC conditions of operation
Table 7.18 Methods of making SOFC components
Table 7.19 Parameters used in simulation of SOFC load curves
Table 7.20 Performance characteristics and applications of fuel cells
Table 7.21 Fuel cell market
Table 7.22 Fuel cells with halogens

Chapter 8: Fuel Cells Applications

Table 8.1 FCV produced in Asia

Introduction to Hydrogen Technology

Second Edition

K.S.V. Santhanam