Cover
Title Page
Contributors
Preface
CHAPTER 1: Speech Perception
1. INTRODUCTION
2. STAGES OF PERCEPTUAL PROCESSING
3. FLOW OF INFORMATION: HOW DO THE DIFFERENT STAGES TALK TO EACH OTHER?
4. CONCLUSION
5. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
6. REFERENCES
7. NOTE
CHAPTER 2: The Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Speech Production
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PRODUCTION
3. HOW DOES PRODUCTION INTERFACE WITH OTHER COGNITIVE SYSTEMS?
4. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
5. REFERENCES
6. NOTE
CHAPTER 3: Word Processing
1. INTRODUCTION
2. REPRESENTATIONS IN WORD PROCESSING
3. PROCESSING SEMANTICALLY AMBIGUOUS WORDS
4. PUTTING WORDS IN CONTEXT
5. CONCLUSION
6. REFERENCES
7. NOTE
CHAPTER 4: Sentence Processing
1. INTRODUCTION
2. SYNTACTIC PARSING
3. THE DISTINCT NEURAL PROCESSES OF SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC ANALYSIS
4. THE ROLE OF STORED KNOWLEDGE IN SENTENCE INTERPRETATION
5. PREDICTION
6. MAINTENANCE, CONTROL, AND REANALYSIS
7. CONCLUSIONS
8. REFERENCES
9. NOTE
CHAPTER 5: Discourse and Dialogue
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BACKGROUND AND CLASSIC ISSUES
3. MODELS OF DISCOURSE AND DIALOGUE
4. FUTURE DIRECTIONS, EMERGING TRENDS
5. CONCLUSION
6. REFERENCES
7. NOTES
CHAPTER 6: Reading
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BACKGROUND ISSUES
3. CONCLUSION
4. REFERENCES
CHAPTER 7: Bilingualism
1. INTRODUCTION
2. MODELS OF BILINGUAL PROCESSING
3. BILINGUALISM AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
4. CONCLUSION
5. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
6. REFERENCES
7. NOTE
CHAPTER 8: Categorization and Concepts
1. INTRODUCTION
2. WHAT ARE CONCEPTS?
3. WHAT DO CONCEPTS DO FOR US?
4. HOW ARE CONCEPTS REPRESENTED?
5. CONNECTING CONCEPTS
6. HOW TO IMPROVE CATEGORY LEARNING?
7. CONCLUSION
8. REFERENCES
9. NOTE
CHAPTER 9: Semantic Memory
1. WHAT IS SEMANTIC MEMORY?
2. WHAT IS SEMANTIC MEMORY FOR?
3. WHAT IS THE STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF SEMANTIC MEMORY?
4. HOW IS SEMANTIC MEMORY ACQUIRED?
5. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SEMANTIC MEMORY
6. WHICH BRAIN REGIONS SUPPORT SEMANTIC MEMORY, AND HOW?
7. COMPUTATIONAL MODELS OF SEMANTIC REPRESENTATION
8. SEMANTIC MEMORY: A COMMON THREAD, AND A LOOK AHEAD
9. AN INTEGRATED MEMORY SYSTEM
10. CONCLUSION
11. REFERENCES
12. NOTES
CHAPTER 10: Embodiment and Grounding in Cognitive Neuroscience
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BACKGROUND ISSUES
3. RECENT/EMERGING TRENDS
4. FUTURE DIRECTIONS
5. CONCLUSION
6. REFERENCES
CHAPTER 11: Reasoning
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CORE INFERENCE: DEDUCTION, INDUCTION, AND ABDUCTION
3. WHAT COUNTS AS A RATIONAL DEDUCTION?
4. WHAT'S THE RELATION BETWEEN DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE REASONING?
5. HOW DO PEOPLE CREATE EXPLANATIONS?
6. CONCLUSION
7. DEFINITIONS AND TERMS
8. REFERENCES
CHAPTER 12: Moral Reasoning
1. INTRODUCTION
2. HOW PEOPLE MAKE MORAL JUDGMENTS
3. HOW PEOPLE INTERACT WITH OTHERS
4. CONCLUSION
5. REFERENCES
CHAPTER 13: Creativity
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BACKGROUND ISSUES
3. RECENT TRENDS
4. FUTURE DIRECTIONS
5. CONCLUSION
6. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
7. REFERENCES
CHAPTER 14: Culture and Cognition
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON COGNITION
3. CULTURAL PRODUCTS AND PRACTICES
4. HYPOTHESIS AND MODELS OF CULTURE AND COGNITION
5. CONCLUSION
6. REFERENCES
CHAPTER 15: Three Kinds of Spatial Cognition
1. INTRODUCTION
2. THE VIEW FROM PSYCHOMETRICS
3. A NEW TYPOLOGY
4. NAVIGATION: CURRENT KNOWLEDGE, FUTURE DIRECTIONS
5. OBJECT ENCODING AND TRANSFORMATION: CURRENT KNOWLEDGE, FUTURE DIRECTIONS
6. COMMONALITIES
7. SPATIALIZING AS A SYMBOLIC TOOL
8. CONCLUSION
9. REFERENCES
CHAPTER 16: The Neurocognitive Bases of Numerical Cognition
1. INTRODUCTION
2. INSIGHTS FROM DEVELOPMENTAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
3. INSIGHTS FROM NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
4. CONCLUSION
5. REFERENCES
6. NOTES
Author Index
Subject Index
End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 8
1. Table 8.1 A Common Category Structure
Chapter 11
1. Table 11.1 Three Overarching Frameworks of Rationality, Their Primary Principles and Hypotheses, the Kinds of Representational Structures on Which Proposed Mechanisms Operate, the Manner in Which Content and Background Knowledge Affect the Mechanisms, and the Accounts of Validity the Frameworks Espouse
2. Table 11.2 Semantic Definitions of Logical Connectives for Two Sentences, A and C, in Formal Logic, Probability Logic, and Mental Model Theory. The First Column Illustrates the Four States of Affairs That Can Occur With A and C on Separate Rows. For Example, the First Row Depicts the Situation in Which A and C are Both True. The Rest of the Columns Illustrate How Various Connectives are Defined Relative to the Four Contingencies. Proponents of Probabilistic Logic Import Many of the Assumptions of Orthodox Logic, but Interpret Conditionals as Having a “Defective” Truth Table, That is, One That has No Truth Values When the Antecedent of a Conditional, A, is False. Proponents of Mental Model Theory Interpret the Four States of Affairs as Possibilities, Not Truth Values
3. Table 11.3 Summary of Robust Phenomena of Inductive Arguments That Increase the Propensity to Generalize a Given Property. The Table Lists Each Phenomenon and Its Description, Provides an Illustrative Example, and in Brackets, Provides a Contrasting Example of a Situation That Violates the Phenomenon
4. Table 11.4 Summary of Formal Models of Inductive Reasoning
5. Table 11.5 Various Types of Preferences for Explanations, Their Descriptions, and Empirical Studies of the Preference

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1
1. Figure 1.1 Oscillogram (top) and spectrogram (bottom) representations of the speech signal in the sentence “The sun melted the snow,” spoken by a male British English speaker. The vertical lines represent approximate phoneme boundaries with phoneme transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) system. The oscillogram shows variation in amplitude (vertical axis) over time (horizontal axis). The spectrogram shows variation in the frequency spectrum (vertical axis) over time (horizontal axis); higher energy in a given part of the spectrum is represented by darker shading.
2. Figure 1.2 Processing stages in speech perception. Arrows represent on-line flow of information during the initial processing of an utterance.
3. Figure 1.3 Lateral view of the left hemisphere showing the cortical regions that are central in speech perception. A1, primary auditory cortex; TP, temporal pole; aSTG, anterior superior temporal gyrus; pSTG, posterior superior temporal gyrus; pMTG, posterior middle temporal gyrus; SMG, supramarginal gyrus; M1, primary motor cortex; PMC, premotor cortex; IFG, inferior frontal gyrus.
Chapter 2
1. Figure 2.1 An illustration of components within the monitoring system.
2. Figure 2.2 Graphic illustration of questions for future research. Three panels show pairs of topics that interface with one another—from left to right. The topmost portion of each panel illustrates a topic that is well understood in the field, while the bottom illustrates a question that is less understood.
Chapter 5
1. Figure 5.2 Referring expressions from 13 different conversations about the same tangram figure.
Chapter 6
1. Figure 6.1 Examples of different orthographic inputs.
2. Figure 6.2 The interactive activation model of visual word recognition. The model maps from early visual representations of line segments, through to individual letters, and finally, to words. Connections between layers (levels of representation) carry excitation, whereas connections within layers carry inhibition.
3. Figure 6.3 Depiction of the warping required to represent an exception word (pint) along with neighboring words with regular pronunciations. There is some spillover to nearby words (e.g., tint, hint) and to neighboring nonwords (e.g., kint, gint). Explicit training on words leaves neighboring regular word pronunciations intact.
4. Figure 6.4 Surface rendering of the brain depicting the common neural activation of a lexical decision and reading aloud tasks. The activity maps plot activation for words and pseudowords compared to deciding “no” to false fonts and of reading aloud words and pseudowords compared to responding “false” to false fonts. All contrasts depicted at p < .05, corrected.
Chapter 7
1. Figure 7.1 The Revised Hierarchical Model.
2. Figure 7.2 The bilingual interactive activation model.
3. Figure 7.3 The BIA+ model.
4. Figure 7.4 The inhibitory control (IC) model.
Chapter 8
1. Figure 8.1 Alternative proposals have suggested that categories are represented by the individual exemplars in the categories (the circles), the prototypes of the categories (the triangles), or the category boundaries (the lines dividing the categories).
2. Figure 8.2 The notion that categories are represented by their boundaries can be constrained in several ways. Boundaries can be constrained to be perpendicular to a dimensional axis, to be equally close to prototypes for neighboring categories, to produce optimal categorization performance, or may be loosely constrained to be a quadratic function.
Chapter 11
1. Figure 11.1 Percentages of various responses to the question “What proportion of As are Cs?” (A) and “What proportion of As must be Cs?” (B) for basic and probabilistically marked conditionals.
Chapter 13
1. Figure 13.1A The nine-dot problem. Participants are asked to connect all nine dots using the minimum number of straight lines without lifting their pen from the paper.
2. Figure 13.1B Possible solutions to the nine-dot problem. The problem perceptually implies that participants have to stay within the limits of the box formed by the nine dots. To solve the problem, they have to reject this dominant interpretation of the problem situation and draw the lines outside the box.
Chapter 14
1. Figure 14.1 The Müller-Lyer illusion. Which of the two vertical line segments is longer, X or Y?
2. Figure 14.2 Experiences with corners of the buildings in our eco-cultural environments.
3. Figure 14.3 An example of the animated underwater scene with arrows indicating the directions of the movement of the figures in the scene.
4. Figure 14.4 Examples of fragments of the underwater scene illustrating one of the focal fish with original, no, and novel background.
5. Figure 14.5 Examples of the cartoon images with the happy central figure surrounded by other happy (left) and sad (right) figures.
6. Figure 14.6 Graph illustrating the eye-tracking results of Japanese and American participants' attention to the central figure for the first 3 seconds of visual processing.
7. Figure 14.7 A picture illustration of the categorization task.
8. Figure 14.8 An example of a wide tornado (left; high-magnitude cause) and narrow tornado (right; low-magnitude cause).
9. Figure 14.9 Graph illustrating the percentages of Canadians and Chinese associating the different magnitudes of the causes and effects of a tornado.
10. Figure 14.10 Some examples of linear (A and B) and nonlinear (C and D) trends that depict life happiness from the beginning to the end of life.
11. Figure 14.11 Graph illustrating North American and Chinese participants' decision to sell increasing and decreasing stocks (1 = yes, 0 = no).
Chapter 15
1. Figure 15.1 Spatial functioning is a distinct aspect of human intellect. Spatial measures are highlighted in the gold-colored sector of this model, along with verbal and mathematical thinking. Tests toward the center are more general; those towards the periphery are more specific. W in figure refers to Wechsler (i.e., taken from the Wechsler intelligence test).
2. Figure 15.2 Examples of dividing spatial cognition into the static and dynamic aspects of intrinsic and extrinsic spatial relations.
Chapter 16
1. Figure 16.1 Mathematical representations of the approximate number system. (A) In the linear model, each numerosity is represented as a distribution of activation on a linear scale with increasing standard deviation (i.e., scalar variability); (B) in the logarithmic model, each numerosity is represented on a logarithmic compressed scale with constant standard deviation.
2. Figure 16.2 A sample trial in a nonsymbolic comparison task. Two numerical sets are displayed. The participant has to indicate the numerically larger set without counting.
3. Figure 16.3 An example of a trial in the number line task: Participants have to mark on the line the position of the target number (in the upper left and right corners).
4. Figure 16.4 An example of (A) congruent and (B) incongruent trials in the dots comparison task. Both panels show the same numerical comparison (21 vs. 26). In the congruent trial, the more numerous array had larger dots and a larger area, whereas in the incongruent trial, the more numerous array had smaller dots and a smaller area.
5. Figure 16.5 Recommended updates to the triple-code model (TCM) and brain areas associated with number and calculation tasks. (A). We illustrate in green the schematized cortical locations of the TCM proposed by Dehaene and Cohen (1995) and Dehaene and Cohen (1997): (1) inferior parietal cortex (quantity representation), (2) temporal cortex (visual number form), (3) articulatory loop, (4) verbal system, (5) basal ganglia (arithmetic facts), (6) thalamus (arithmetic facts), and (7) prefrontal cortex (strategy choice and planning). In orange are additional schematic locations of areas concordant among studies, as demonstrated by meta-analyses: (a) superior frontal BA 10 (goal, subgoal creation), (b) middle frontal BA 46 (monitoring of more than a few items), (c) inferior frontal BA 9 (monitoring of simple rules or a few items), (d) precentral gyrus (eye movements), (e) insula (toggle goal-directed and default-mode processes), (f) cingulate gyrus (implementation of cognitive goals), (g) right angular gyrus (visual-spatial fact retrieval), and (h) cerebellum (goal-directed, visual motor sequencing). Subcortical regions specific to meta-analyses of number or calculation tasks are not depicted.
  (B) Schematic reconstruction of association (green, yellow), projection (blue), and commissural (red) fiber tracts repeatedly observed in numerical cognition tasks (in axial, sagittal, and coronal orientation). The superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF) is displayed in green, the inferior longitudinal fasciculus (ILF) and the external/extreme capsule (EC/EmC) systems are depicted in yellow, parts of the internal capsule (IC) in dark blue, the superior coronar radiata (SCR) is shown in light blue, and the interhemispheric parietal-to-parietal connections encompassing the callosal isthmus (CI) are shown in red. Virtual dissections were performed for one individual with seed regions chosen deliberately for illustration purposes only, regarding white matter pathways involved in numerical cognition.
6. Figure 16.6 The calculation of the physical similarity function when the target integer is a 5, and the distractor integers are 1–4 and 6–9. The figure 8 on the left shows the basic structure of the integers, with each line on the figure 8 labeled with a number. The table shows the line numbers that constitute each integer and the calculation of the similarity function. The figure at the top plots the similarity function.
7. Figure 16.7 Response properties of numerosity-selective posterior parietal cortex (PPC) neurons and a normalized average tuning function. (A) The normalized average activity of all neurons formed a bank of overlapping numerosity filters in the sample period. (B) Normalized average tuning function across all preferred numerosities and selective neurons for the sample epoch. Functions for correct (solid lines) and error trials (dotted lines) are shown. Error bars indicate standard errors across cells.

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The Library of Congress has cataloged the combined volume as follows:

Name: Wixted, John T., editor.

Title: Stevens' handbook of experimental psychology and cognitive neuroscience / by John T. Wixted (Editor-in-chief).

Other titles: Handbook of experimental psychology.

Description: Fourth edition. | New York : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., [2018] | Includes index. Contents: Volume 1. Learning and memory – Volume 2. Sensation, perception, and attention – Volume 3. Language & thought – Volume 4. Developmental & social psychology – Volume 5. Methodology.

Subjects: LCSH: Psychology, Experimental. | Cognitive neuroscience.

Classification: LCC BF181 .H336 2018 | DDC 150—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017032691

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Preface

Since the first edition was published in 1951, The Stevens' Handbook of Experimental Psychology has been recognized as the standard reference in the experimental psychology field. The most recent (third) edition of the handbook was published in 2004, and it was a success by any measure. But the field of experimental psychology has changed in dramatic ways since then. Throughout the first three editions of the handbook, the changes in the field were mainly quantitative in nature. That is, the size and scope of the field grew steadily from 1951 to 2004, a trend that was reflected in the growing size of the handbook itself: the one-volume first edition (1951) was succeeded by a two-volume second edition (1988) and then by a four-volume third edition (2004). Since 2004, however, this still-growing field has also changed qualitatively in the sense that, in virtually every subdomain of experimental psychology, theories of the mind have evolved to include theories of the brain. Research methods in experimental psychology have changed accordingly and now include not only venerable EEG recordings (long a staple of research in psycholinguistics) but also MEG, fMRI, TMS, and single-unit recording. The trend toward neuroscience is an absolutely dramatic, worldwide phenomenon that is unlikely ever to be reversed. Thus, the era of purely behavioral experimental psychology is already long gone, even though not everyone has noticed. Experimental psychology and cognitive neuroscience (an umbrella term that, as used here, includes behavioral neuroscience, social neuroscience, and developmental neuroscience) are now inextricably intertwined. Nearly every major psychology department in the country has added cognitive neuroscientists to its ranks in recent years, and that trend is still growing. A viable handbook of experimental psychology should reflect the new reality on the ground.

There is no handbook in existence today that combines basic experimental psychology and cognitive neuroscience, despite the fact that the two fields are interrelated—and even interdependent—because they are concerned with the same issues (e.g., memory, perception, language, development, etc.). Almost all neuroscience-oriented research takes as its starting point what has been learned using behavioral methods in experimental psychology. In addition, nowadays, psychological theories increasingly take into account what has been learned about the brain (e.g., psychological models increasingly need to be neurologically plausible). These considerations explain why I chose a new title for the handbook: The Stevens' Handbook of Experimental Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience. This title serves as a reminder that the two fields go together and as an announcement that the Stevens' Handbook now covers it all.

The fourth edition of the Stevens' Handbook is a five-volume set structured as follows:

Learning & Memory: Elizabeth A. Phelps and Lila Davachi (volume editors)
Topics include fear learning, time perception, working memory, visual object recognition, memory and future imagining, sleep and memory, emotion and memory, attention and memory, motivation and memory, inhibition in memory, education and memory, aging and memory, autobiographical memory, eyewitness memory, and category learning.
Sensation, Perception, & Attention: John T. Serences (volume editor)
Topics include attention; vision; color vision; visual search; depth perception; taste; touch; olfaction; motor control; perceptual learning; audition; music perception; multisensory integration; vestibular, proprioceptive, and haptic contributions to spatial orientation; motion perception; perceptual rhythms; the interface theory of perception; perceptual organization; perception and interactive technology; and perception for action.
Language & Thought: Sharon L. Thompson-Schill (volume editor)
Topics include reading, discourse and dialogue, speech production, sentence processing, bilingualism, concepts and categorization, culture and cognition, embodied cognition, creativity, reasoning, speech perception, spatial cognition, word processing, semantic memory, and moral reasoning.
Developmental & Social Psychology: Simona Ghetti (volume editor)
Topics include development of visual attention, self-evaluation, moral development, emotion-cognition interactions, person perception, memory, implicit social cognition, motivation group processes, development of scientific thinking, language acquisition, category and conceptual development, development of mathematical reasoning, emotion regulation, emotional development, development of theory of mind, attitudes, and executive function.
Methodology: Eric-Jan Wagenmakers (volume editor)
Topics include hypothesis testing and statistical inference, model comparison in psychology, mathematical modeling in cognition and cognitive neuroscience, methods and models in categorization, serial versus parallel processing, theories for discriminating signal from noise, Bayesian cognitive modeling, response time modeling, neural networks and neurocomputational modeling, methods in psychophysics analyzing neural time series data, convergent methods of memory research, models and methods for reinforcement learning, cultural consensus theory, network models for clinical psychology, the stop-signal paradigm, fMRI, neural recordings, and open science.

How the field of experimental psychology will evolve in the years to come is anyone's guess, but the Stevens' Handbook provides a comprehensive overview of where it stands today. For anyone in search of interesting and important topics to pursue in future research, this is the place to start. After all, you have to figure out the direction in which the river of knowledge is currently flowing to have any hope of ever changing it.