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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Shumway, Sandra E., editor. | Burkholder, JoAnn M. (JoAnn Marie), editor. | Morton, Steve L., editor.
Title: Harmful algal blooms : a compendium desk reference / edited by Sandra E. Shumway, JoAnn M. Burkholder, Steve L. Morton.
Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2018. | Includes index. | Identifiers: LCCN 2017040583 (print) | LCCN 2017047559 (ebook) | ISBN 9781118994696 (pdf) | ISBN 9781118994689 (epub) | ISBN 9781118994658 (cloth)
We dedicate this book to Robert R.L. Guillard and Theodore J. Smayda, our esteemed colleagues, friends, and mentors.
List of Contributors
Charles M. Adams
University of Florida
Food and Resource Economics Department
Gainesville, FL
United States
Christine J. Band-Schmidt
CICIMAR-IPN
Depto. de Plancton y Ecología Marina
La Paz, B.C.S.
México
Leila Basti
Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology
Marine Environmental Physiology Laboratory
Department of Ocean Sciences
Tokyo
Japan
Larry E. Brand
University of Miami
Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science
Department of Marine Biology and Ecology
Miami, FL
United States
Margaret H. Broadwater
NOAA National Ocean Service
National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science
Stressor Detection and Impacts Division
Charleston, SC
United States
JoAnn M. Burkholder
North Carolina State University
Department of Applied Ecology
Center for Applied Aquatic Ecology
Raleigh, NC
United States
Allan D. Cembella
Alfred Wegener Institute
Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung
Bremerhaven
Germany
Gregory J. Doucette
NOAA National Ocean Service
National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science
Marine Biotoxins Program
Charleston, SC
United States
Spencer E. Fire
Florida Institute of Technology
Biological Sciences
Melbourne, FL
United States
Kevin J. Flynn
Swansea University
College of Science
Swansea, Wales
United Kingdom
Corinne M. Gibble
University of California
Ocean Science Department
Santa Cruz, CA
United States
Patricia M. Glibert
University of Maryland
Center for Environmental Science
Horn Point Laboratory
Cambridge, MD
United States
Christopher J. Gobler
Stony Brook University
School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences
Southampton, NY
United States
Lynn M. Grattan
University of Maryland School of Medicine
Department of Neurology
Baltimore, MD
United States
Gustaaf Hallegraeff
University of Tasmania
Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies (IMAS)
Hobart, Tasmania
Australia
Hélène Hégaret
Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer
Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin
UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/IFREME
Plouzané
France
Philipp Hess
IFREMER
Laboratoire Phycotoxines
France
Porter Hoagland
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Marine Policy Center
Woods Hole, MA
United States
Sailor Holobaugh
University of Maryland School of Medicine
Department of Neurology
Baltimore, MD
United States
Brian A. Hoover
University of California
Graduate Group in Ecology
Davis, CA
United States
Raphael Kudela
University of California, Santa Cruz
Ocean Sciences Department
Institute of Marine Sciences
Santa Cruz, CA
United States
Gregg W. Langlois
California Department of Public Health (retired)
Richmond, CA
United States
Brian E. Lapointe
Florida Atlantic University – Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute
Marine Ecosystem Health Program
Ft. Pierce, FL
United States
Sherry L. Larkin
University of Florida
Food and Resource Economics Department
Gainesville, FL
United States
Schonna R. Manning
University of Texas at Austin
Department of Molecular Biosciences
Austin, TX
United States
Harold G. Marshall
Old Dominion University
Department of Biological Sciences
Norfolk, VA
United States
Pearse McCarron
National Research Council of Canada
Halifax, Nova Scotia
Canada
Dennis J. McGillicuddy, Jr.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Department of Applied Ocean Physics and Engineering
Woods Hole, MA
United States
Linda K. Medlin
Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom
The Citadel
Plymouth
United Kingdom
Steve L. Morton
NOAA National Ocean Service
Marine Biotoxins Program
Charleston, SC
United States
Shauna Murray
University of Technology Sydney
Climate Change Cluster (C3)
Ultimo, NSW
Australia
Judith M. O'Neil
University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science
Horn Point Laboratory
Cambridge, MD
United States
Michael L. Parsons
Florida Gulf Coast University
Fort Meyers, FL
United States
Andrew Reich
Bureau of Environmental Health
Florida Department of Health
Tallahassee, FL
United States
J.E. (Jack) Rensel
Rensel Associates Aquatic Sciences
Arlington, WA
United States
Mindy L. Richlen
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Biology Department
Woods Hole, MA
United States
Alison Robertson
University of South Alabama
and
Dauphin Island Sea Laboratory
Dauphin Island, AL
United States
Daniel L. Roelke
Texas A&M University
Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences
College Station, TX
United States
Brian Sancewich
University of Florida
Food and Resource Economics Department
Gainesville, FL
United States
Joe Schumacker
Quinault Department of Fisheries
Taholah, WA
United States
Kevin G. Sellner
Hood College
Center for Coastal and Watershed Studies
Frederick, MD
United States
Sandra E. Shumway
University of Connecticut
Department of Marine Sciences
Groton, CT
United States
Mary Sweeney-Reeves
University of Georgia
Marine Extension Service and Georgia Sea Grant
Athens, GA
United States
Urban Tillmann
Alfred Wegener Institute
Bremerhaven
Germany
Mare Timmons
University of Georgia
Marine Extension Service and Georgia Sea Grant
Savannah, GA
United States
Carmelo R. Tomas
University of North Carolina–Wilmington
Center for Marine Science
Wilmington, NC
United States
Kathryn L. Van Alstyne
Western Washington University
Shannon Point Marine Center
Anacortes, WA
United States
Frances M. Van Dolah
NOAA National Ocean Service
National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science
Stressor Detection and Impacts Division
Charleston, SC
United States
Gary H. Wikfors
NOAA Fisheries Service
Northeast Fisheries Science Center
Milford, CT
United States
Acknowledgments
The production of a multiauthored book is a long and arduous task, and success depends first and foremost upon the efforts and talents of the contributors. The extraordinary talent and patience of the authors are gratefully acknowledged. The project could not have been completed without Noreen Blaschik and Elle Allen, who assisted with numerous and varied tasks, and created organization out of chaos. Eric Heupel designed the food web diagram and provided the cover artwork, and his talents made the mundane aspects of graphics not only functional, but understandable.
This book was made possible by grant #NA14NMF4270023 from the DOC/NOAA/Saltonstall-Kennedy Program to Sandra E. Shumway and Tessa L. Getchis. An executive summary of this book is available:
Getchis, T.L., and S.E. Shumway. (Eds.) 2017. Harmful Algae: An Executive Summary. Connecticut Sea Grant College Program. CTSG-17-08. 16 pp.
Introduction
Toxic microalgae and their associated blooms are regular and natural phenomena and have been recorded throughout history, yet major efforts to study their ecology, physiology, toxins, and impacts have only escalated over the past 4–5 decades as their presence and impacts have expanded globally. Harmful algal blooms (HAB) are caused by a diverse array of microalgal species, and they exert significant negative impacts on human and environmental health, economies, tourism, aquaculture, and fisheries (Figure I.1). The continuing increase in numbers of toxic and harmful algal species worldwide presents a constant threat to these entities, and to the sustainable development of coastal regions. While blooms of toxic algae have been noted in numerous historical documents, dating back centuries, the focus on HAB in North America and their impacts on human health was a relatively new phenomenon in the early 1970s, when the first conference was organized to share information on occurrences predominantly in New England and the Gulf of Mexico (see LoCicero et al., 1975).
Figure I.1
As blooms of toxic phytoplankton have continued to increase in their frequency, concentrations, and geographic distribution in marine, estuarine, and fresh waters, the amount of available literature on the topic has also continued to grow. Of the estimated 3400–4000 known species of phytoplankton, only 1–2% (60–80 species) are known to be harmful or toxic, yet their impacts can be devastating. Benthic microalgae and harmful species that do not typically “bloom” are now emerging as vectors of toxins (Chapter 16).
Consumption of contaminated seafood and exposure to contaminated water and aerial-borne toxins lead to seafood safety issues and human health hazards (Chapter 11). These episodes also impact the local economies (Chapter 10) and can cause large-scale ecological disturbances including fish and shellfish die-offs, and mortalities of marine mammals and birds. A conservative, dated estimate of societal costs associated with HAB in the United States is nearly a half-billion U.S. dollars, about half of which is linked to public health effects (Anderson et al., 2000; also see Adams and Larken, 2013; Hamilton et al., 2014; Bingham et al., 2015).
Traditionally, the vectors for toxin transfer were limited to consideration of filter-feeding bivalve molluscs (e.g., oysters, clams, scallops, and mussels), but over time they have grown to include gastropods (snails, limpets, and abalone), cephalopods (squid and octopus), crustaceans (crabs, shrimp, and lobsters), and echinoderms (sea urchins and sea cucumbers) (Chapter 5). Fish and many of these nontraditional food items have been incorporated in routine algal toxin-monitoring programs (Chapter 12) for the most common toxic syndromes such as paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP), neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP), and diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP), and emerging toxins such as azaspiracids, palytoxins, yessotoxins, and pectenotoxins.
Aquaculture is the fastest growing component of the food production sector globally, and the possible contamination of aquaculture and fishery products due to microalgal toxins is a major concern for managers charged with guaranteeing safe products for human and animal consumption. This has in turn led to concerted efforts to develop more sensitive, efficient, and affordable tests for algal toxins.
Since the first international conference focused on toxic algae in 1974, there have been 16 international conferences, each of which has produced a volume of contributed papers that provide invaluable information, often at local levels that might not otherwise be made available to the community at large. Bibliographic information for these volumes is provided in the “References and Further General Reading” at the end of this Introduction.
The topic is very well studied, and there are numerous comprehensive reviews and volumes available (see “References”). The volume of published material and the exponential growth of the field over the past four decades are the impetus for the current volume – to distill the information into a useable format for managers, newcomers to the field, and those who are not familiar with the scientific literature or do not have easy or affordable access.
The worldwide number of phycotoxin-induced intoxications per year is about 60,000 cases (Gerssen et al., 2010), and, even with the advent of new and improved technologies for detection and monitoring programs, human illnesses still occur on a regular basis. An excellent summary of illnesses and deaths attributed to harmful algae is provided by Picot et al. (2011). The greatest threats are with regard to novel species and outbreaks, or areas where monitoring is not routine or does not include all edible species. As new toxins are identified and better technologies developed, monitoring programs continue to evolve. These monitoring programs are also a valuable source of long-term data sets that are currently being used in modeling efforts to predict the presence and impacts of blooms (see Chapter 3). The high variability in toxin levels between individual animals demands a comprehensive monitoring program (see Chapter 12). The increase in blooms has resulted in development of new and more cost-effective technologies for toxin detection. Among the greatest strides in recent years have been the development of “dipstick tests,” which are now routinely used in many areas as preliminary screening tools; the automatized detection of harmful species with specific molecular probes; and the migration from mouse assays to instrumental analyses (see Chapter 2). Successful management and monitoring programs have minimized cases of illnesses associated with toxic algae, and they continue to be refined.
Control, prevention, and mitigation remain topics of considerable interest, and new technologies, especially with regard to manipulated clay, continue to be pursued (Chapter 14), as do efforts to minimize the severity of economic and ecological impacts as well as to reduce threats to human health. The development of educational and outreach materials that promote public understanding and especially those targeted at focused audiences where language may be a barrier (Chapter 13) has been a major factor in engaging the general public and making them more aware of the perils and avoidance means when faced with local harmful and toxic algal blooms.
The current body of knowledge on HAB and their impacts is vast and no longer easily accessible, or understandable, to those not actively engaged in specific research arenas. The present volume is not intended to be a comprehensive review of all topics, but rather to provide basic information to those who are confronted with seemingly boundless sources of information, some conflicting or confusing, or who simply don't know where to begin searching for the information they need. These issues become more urgent when faced with unexpected blooms or known or unknown algal species and the associated risks to human health and trophic consequences in marine and aquatic habitats.
The aim of the current volume is to provide an accessible source of information and references for further investigation for individuals who may not be familiar with the scientific literature, but are in need of technical information when faced with unexpected or unknown harmful algal events.
References and Further General Reading
The available published literature on harmful algal blooms and their impacts is vast and can no longer be covered in any single publication. The goal of this book is to provide an overview for managers and newcomers to the field, and the following list provides an overview of recent publications.
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Anderson, C.,
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Doucette, G.J., and C. Lee (Eds.). 2008.
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