Table of Contents

Cover

Series Preface

Acknowledgements

About the Authors

Introduction

1 Military Roles

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Air Superiority
1.3 Ground Attack
1.4 Strategic Bomber
1.5 Maritime Patrol
1.6 Battlefield Surveillance
1.7 Airborne Early Warning
1.8 Electronic Warfare
1.9 Photographic Reconnaissance
1.10 Air-to-Air Refuelling
1.11 Troop/Materiel Transport
1.12 Unmanned Air Vehicles
1.13 Training
1.14 Special Roles
1.15 Summary
Further Reading

2 Technology and Architectures

2.1 Evolution of Avionics Architectures
2.2 Aerospace-specific Data Buses
2.3 JIAWG Architecture
2.4 COTS Data Buses
2.5 Real-time Operating Systems
2.6 RF Integration
2.7 Pave Pace/F-35 Shared Aperture Architecture
References

3 Basic Radar Systems

3.1 Basic Principles of Radar
3.2 Radar Antenna Characteristics
3.3 Major Radar Modes
3.4 Antenna Directional Properties
3.5 Pulsed Radar Architecture
3.6 Doppler Radar
3.7 Other Uses of Radar
3.8 Target Tracking
References

4 Advanced Radar Systems

4.1 Pulse Compression
4.2 Pulsed Doppler Operation
4.3 Pulsed Doppler Radar Implementation
4.4. Advanced Antennas
4.5 Synthetic Aperture Radar
4.6 Low Observability
References

5 Electrooptics

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Television
5.3 Night-vision Goggles
5.4 IR Imaging
5.5 IR Tracking
5.6 Lasers
5.7 Integrated Systems
References

6 Electronic Warfare

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Signals Intelligence (SIGINT)
6.3 Electronic Support Measures
6.4 Electronic Countermeasures and Counter-countermeasures
6.5 Defensive Aids
References

7 Communications and Identification

7.1 Definition of CNI
7.2 RF Propagation
7.3 Transponders
7.4 Data Links
7.5 Network-centric Operations
References

8 Navigation

8.1 Navigation Principles
8.2 Radio Navigation
8.3 Inertial Navigation Fundamentals
8.4 Satellite Navigation
8.5 Integrated Navigation
8.6 Flight Management System
8.7 Navigation Aids
8.8 Inertial Navigation
8.9 Global Navigation Satellite Systems
8.10 Global Air Transport Management (GATM)
References

9 Weapons Carriage and Guidance

9.1 Introduction
9.2 F-16 Fighting Falcon
9.3 AH-64 C/D Longbow Apache
9.4 Eurofighter Typhoon
9.5 F/A-22 Raptor
9.6 Nimrod MRA4
9.7 F-35 Joint Strike Fighter
9.8 MIL-STD-1760 Standard Stores Interface
9.9 Air-to-Air Missiles
9.10 Air-to-Ground Ordnance
Resources
References

10 Vehicle Management Systems

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Historical Development of Control of Utility Systems
10.3 Summary of Utility Systems
10.4 Control of Utility Systems
10.5 Subsystem Descriptions
10.6 Design Considerations
References
Further Reading

11 Displays

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Crew Station
11.3 Head-Up Display
11.4 Helmet-Mounted Displays
11.5 Head-Down Displays
11.6 Emerging Display Technologies
11.7 Visibility Requirements
References

Bibliography

Glossary

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Typical air superiority systems
Table 1.2 Typical ground attack systems
Table 1.3 Typical strategic bomber systems
Table 1.4 Typical MPA systems
Table 1.5 Typical battlefield surveillance systems
Table 1.6 Typical AEW systems
Table 1.7 Typical EW systems
Table 1.8 Typical photo reconnaissance systems
Table 1.9 Typical tanker systems
Table 1.10 Typical transport systems
Table 1.11 Examples of unmanned air vehicles

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 STANG 3910 implementations
Table 2.2 RTOS software certification levels
Table 2.3 Summary of the applicable failure severities
Table 2.4 Summary of JIAWG apertures
Table 2.5 Comparison of third- and fourth-generation RF integrated sensor system...
Table 2.6 Pave Pace aperture listing

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Designation of radar bands [source: Skolnik, M.I. (1980) Introduction ...

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 US fighter aircraft being fitted or retrofitted with AESA radars
Table 4.2 Baseline air-to-ground mapping radar specification
Table 4.3 Comparison of ground-mapping modes

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Emissivity coefficients for some common materials
Table 5.2 Overview of IR FPA detector technologies
Table 5.3 Summary and comparison of EO targeting pods
Table 5.4 Summary of typical EO turreted systems.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 SATCOM configurations

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Summary of FMS capabilities
Table 8.2 Typical INS performance and physical characteristics
Table 8.3 Comparison of global navigation satellite systems
Table 8.4 RVSM implementation schedule – worldwide

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 F-16 weapons stations and stores configurations
Table 9.2 Typhoon weapons stations and stores configurations – air to air
Table 9.3 Typhoon weapons stations and stores configurations – air to ground
Table 9.4 F-22 Raptor weapons stations and stores configuration
Table 9.5 MIL-STD-1760 signal set.
Table 9.6 ASRAAM characteristics
Table 9.7 ASRAAM characteristics

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Cardinal point performance specification of the MPCD
Table 11.2 Cardinal point performance specification of the AMLCD
Table 11.3 MIL-STD-85762 Table II
Table 11.4 Cardinal point performance specification of the AMLCD head-down displ...
Table 11.5 Cardinal point performance specification of the HUD

List of Illustrations

Introduction

Figure I.1 Avionics as a ‘system of systems’.
Figure I.2 Product breakdown structure of a military aircraft system.
Figure I.3 Increase in functional integration over time.
Figure I.4 Military avionics functional subsystems.

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Typical battlefield scenario and the major players.
Figure 1.2 Air superiority mission profile.
Figure 1.3 Typical air superiority platform architecture.
Figure 1.4 Air superiority aircraft types.
Figure 1.5 Ground attack mission profile.
Figure 1.6 Typical ground attack platform architecture.
Figure 1.7 Ground attack aircraft types.
Figure 1.8 Strategic bomber mission profile.
Figure 1.9 Typical strategic bomber platform architecture.
Figure 1.10 Strategic bomber aircraft types.
Figure 1.11 Search pattern examples.
Figure 1.12 Maritime patrol aircraft mission profile.
Figure 1.13 Typical maritime patrol aircraft platform architecture.
Figure 1.14 Maritime patrol aircraft types.
Figure 1.15 Battlefield surveillance mission profile.
Figure 1.16 Typical battlefield surveillance platform architecture.
Figure 1.17 Battlefield surveillance aircraft types.
Figure 1.18 Airborne early warning mission profile.
Figure 1.19 Typical airborne early warning platform architecture.
Figure 1.20 Airborne early warning aircraft types.
Figure 1.21 Electronic warfare mission profile.
Figure 1.22 Typical electronic warfare platform architecture.
Figure 1.23 Electronic warfare aircraft types.
Figure 1.24 Photographic reconnaissance mission profile.
Figure 1.25 Typical photographic reconnaissance platform architecture.
Figure 1.26 Photographic reconnaissance aircraft types.
Figure 1.27 Air-to-air tanker mission profile.
Figure 1.28 Typical air-to-air tanker platform architecture.
Figure 1.29 Air-to-air tanker aircraft types.
Figure 1.30 Troop/materiel transport mission profile.
Figure 1.31 Typical troop/materiel transport platform architecture.
Figure 1.32 Troop/materiel transport aircraft types.
Figure 1.33 Examples of unmanned air vehicles.
Figure 1.34 Training system aircraft types.
Figure 1.35 Examples of special role types.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Evolution of avionics architectures.
Figure 2.2 Distributed analogue architecture.
Figure 2.3 Distributed digital architecture.
Figure 2.4 Federated avionics architecture.
Figure 2.5 Integrated modular architecture.
Figure 2.6 Comparative data bus transmission rates.
Figure 2.7 Tornado serial data bus and application.
Figure 2.8 A429 topology and the effect of adding units.
Figure 2.9 A429 data bus and encoding format.
Figure 2.10 A429 data word format.
Figure 2.11 MIL-STD-1553B data bus.
Figure 2.12 MIL-STD-1553B data bus word formats.
Figure 2.13 MIL-STD-1553B typical data transactions.
Figure 2.14 STANAG 3910 architecture.
Figure 2.15 STANAG 3910 RT to BC data transaction.
Figure 2.16 STANAG 3910 HS word formats (low-speed bus).
Figure 2.17 STANAG 3910 data structure.
Figure 2.18 Generic JIAWG avionics architecture.
Figure 2.19 Generic JIAWG integrated cabinet architecture.
Figure 2.20 FO linear token passing topology (HSDB).
Figure 2.21 JIAWG architecture upgraded using fibre channel buses.
Figure 2.22 Fibre channel topologies.
Figure 2.23 Redundant switched fabric topology with bridges.
Figure 2.24 Eight-port StarFabric switched fabric module.
Figure 2.25 Software and hardware integration.
Figure 2.26 Integrity and security partitioning.
Figure 2.27 First-generation analogue system – 1950s.
Figure 2.28 Integrated system – 1960s and 1970s.
Figure 2.29 Integrated avionics architecture.
Figure 2.30 2000 + integrated architecture with shared apertures.
Figure 2.31 F-22/JIAWG top-level avionics architecture.
Figure 2.32 JIAWG RF aperture architecture.
Figure 2.33 F-22 CNI apertures (upper aspect).
Figure 2.34 F-22 EW apertures.
Figure 2.35 Pave Pace integrated RF architecture.
Figure 2.36 Pave Pace – shared aperture RF architecture.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Contrasting airborne radar applications. (I. Moir)
Figure 3.2 Range of electromagnetic applications in military avionics.
Figure 3.3 Airborne radar frequency coverage.
Figure 3.4 Effects of atmospheric attenuation.
Figure 3.5 Basic principles of radar.
Figure 3.6 Pulse and continuous wave.\
Figure 3.7 Doppler effect due to motion.
Figure 3.8 Parabolic reflector and planar array.
Figure 3.9 Antenna pattern showing main beam and sidelobes.
Figure 3.10 Decibels compared with numerical format.
Figure 3.11 Typical air-to-air search pattern.
Figure 3.12 Air-to-air tracking.
Figure 3.13 Air-to-air TWS.
Figure 3.14 Ground mapping.
Figure 3.15 Top-level pulsed radar architecture.
Figure 3.16 Pulsed radar transmission.
Figure 3.17 Effect of pulse period on target ambiguity.
Figure 3.18 Sources of noise affecting radar signal.
Figure 3.19 Effect of different pulses on the receiver bandwidth.
Figure 3.20 Effect of range upon the target echo.
Figure 3.21 Receiver threshold setting.
Figure 3.22 Effect of integration over several pulses.
Figure 3.23 Doppler radar.
Figure 3.24 Frequency modulation ranging.
Figure 3.25 Terrain-following radar operation.
Figure 3.26 CW illumination.
Figure 3.27 Simultaneous multimode operation.
Figure 3.28 Range gate tracking.
Figure 3.29 Sequential lobing – principle of operation.
Figure 3.30 Sequential lobing – tracking configuration.
Figure 3.31 Conical scan – principle of operation.
Figure 3.32 Conical scan – tracking configuration.
Figure 3.33 Monopulse – principle of operation.
Figure 3.34 Monopulse – tracking configuration.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Principle of pulse compression.
Figure 4.2 Comparison of non-coherent and coherent transmission.
Figure 4.3 Characteristics of non-coherent and coherent pulse trains.
Figure 4.4 Effect of pulse train length.
Figure 4.5 Comparison of a single pulse and a pulse train.
Figure 4.6 Principal returns for a pulse Doppler radar.
Figure 4.7 Typical Doppler spectrum.
Figure 4.8 Use of a guard channel to reduce sidelobe clutter.
Figure 4.9 Representative flight profile.
Figure 4.10 Effect of superimposing range zones.
Figure 4.11 Effect of a high PRF on the frequency spectrum.
Figure 4.12 Effect of a low PRF on the frequency spectrum.
Figure 4.13 Definition of maximum unambiguous Doppler.
Figure 4.14 Areas prone to range and Doppler ambiguity.
Figure 4.15 Factors affecting the unambiguous Doppler zone.
Figure 4.16 Pulsed Doppler radar.
Figure 4.17 Pulsed Doppler – receiver.
Figure 4.18 Synchronous video detector.
Figure 4.19 Pulsed Doppler – signal processor.
Figure 4.20 Simple clutter cancellation scheme.
Figure 4.21 Principle of the velocity gate.
Figure 4.22 Pulsed Doppler – radar data processor.
Figure 4.23 Principle of the phased array.
Figure 4.24 Physical characteristics of a planar array.
Figure 4.25 Electronically scanned array.
Figure 4.26 Comparison of passive and active ESA.
Figure 4.27 TR module architecture.
Figure 4.28 ESA and AESA front-end loss comparison.
Figure 4.29 Comparison of fighter radar ranges.
Figure 4.30 Principle of synthetic aperture radar.
Figure 4.31 Collection and storage of successive pulse returns.
Figure 4.32 Unfocused versus Focused SAR Array.
Figure 4.33 Computation associated with formulating a focused array.
Figure 4.34 Doppler history of radar passing a target.
Figure 4.35 Example of Doppler processing.
Figure 4.36 SAR picture of tanks with 1 ft resolution (Sandia National Laborator...
Figure 4.37 US Air Force stealth aircraft.
Figure 4.38 History of the development of stealth aircraft.
Figure 4.39 Areas contributing to a high radar cross-section.
Figure 4.40 Low-observability design objectives.
Figure 4.41 F-117 intake grill & RCS reduction.
Figure 4.42 F-35 engine inlet duct response to long wavelengths.
Figure 4.43 F-35 engine inlet duct response to medium wavelengths.
Figure 4.44 F-35 engine inlet duct response to short wavelengths.
Figure 4.45 Factors affecting the antenna RCS.
Figure 4.46 Comparative RCS values.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum for electrooptic systems.
Figure 5.2 Transmission characteristics of infrared (sea level).
Figure 5.3 Principle of operation of the charge coupled device.
Figure 5.4 Full frame CCD.
Figure 5.5 Frame transfer CCD.
Figure 5.6 Principle of image intensification.
Figure 5.7 Helmet with mounted night-vision goggles. (Infrared 1)
Figure 5.8 Typical NVG image (AV-10 in flight). (Infrared 1)
Figure 5.9 Black body radiation.
Figure 5.10 Wien’s law.
Figure 5.11 Generic IR imaging system.
Figure 5.12 Typical IR detector configurations.
Figure 5.13 Rotating scanner (IR linescan).
Figure 5.14 Planar image.
Figure 5.15 Focal plane array.
Figure 5.16 Stirling cycle cooler.
Figure 5.17 IR detector packaging schemes.
Figure 5.18 Simple reticle tracker.
Figure 5.19 Tracking using a cruciform detector array.
Figure 5.20 PIRATE seeker Courtesy Thales Optronics and installation on Eurofigh...
Figure 5.21 Principles of operation of a laser.
Figure 5.22 Stages leading to a laser strike.
Figure 5.23 Energy levels of a YAG laser.
Figure 5.24 Flash lamp spectral characteristics.
Figure 5.25 Diode-pumped laser.
Figure 5.26 Properties of laser emissions.
Figure 5.27 Laser guidance of an LGB.
Figure 5.28 Third-party laser designation by air or ground means.
Figure 5.29 LGB Guidance.
Figure 5.30 F-18 internally fitted laser units.
Figure 5.31 Typical EO sensor fields of view – Harmonisation.
Figure 5.32 Boresighting, stabilisation and EO package sightline axes.
Figure 5.33 Typical pod-mounted sensor package (Litening II AT).
Figure 5.34 Examples of EO targeting pods.
Figure 5.35 Typical EO turrets and imagery examples.
Figure 5.36 F-35 EO sensor vertical coverage and EOTS installation.
Figure 5.37 F-35 horizontal coverage using DAS sensors. (Northrop Grumman)

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Typical battlespace scenario.
Figure 6.2 Radio-frequency spectrum.
Figure 6.3 Intelligence cycle.
Figure 6.4 Electronic warfare elements.
Figure 6.5 EW airborne roles.
Figure 6.6 Users of radar systems.
Figure 6.7 Functional overview of an ELINT system.
Figure 6.8 Typical ELINT block diagram.
Figure 6.9 Users of communications.
Figure 6.10 Functional view of a COMINT system.
Figure 6.11 Typical COMINT block diagram.
Figure 6.12 Wing-tip ESM pod installation – Nimrod MR2.
Figure 6.13 Example ESM block diagram.
Figure 6.14 Important ESM parameters.
Figure 6.15 Rudimentary jamming techniques.
Figure 6.16 Inverse noise gain jamming.
Figure 6.17 Effect of burnthrough.
Figure 6.18 Example of an aircraft equipped with a DASS.
Figure 6.19 Functional layout of the radar warning receiver.
Figure 6.20 Missile warning receiver layout.
Figure 6.21 Missile warning system (SAAB Avitron).
Figure 6.22 Typical laser warning system (SAAB Avitron).
Figure 6.23 Example of flare dispensing.
Figure 6.24 Example of a towed radar decoy.
Figure 6.25 Simplified overview of F/A-18E/F countermeasures suite.
Figure 6.26 AN/ALR-67 RWR components (Raytheon).
Figure 6.27 AN/ALQ-214 concept of operations.
Figure 6.28 AN/ALQ-214 units (BAE SYSTEMS).

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 CNI RF spectrum.
Figure 7.2 Typical aircraft CNI antenna (Boeing 777 example).
Figure 7.3 HF communications signal propagation.
Figure 7.4 HF data link ground stations.
Figure 7.5 VHF signal propagation.
Figure 7.6 SATCOM principles of operation.
Figure 7.7 INMARSAT satellite coverage – 2001.
Figure 7.8 Principle of transponder operation.
Figure 7.9 TCAS architecture showing related equipment and displays.
Figure 7.10 IFF set AN/APX-113(V). (BAE SYSTEMS)
Figure 7.11 Co-boresighting of IFF interrogator with radar.
Figure 7.12 Typical data link users.
Figure 7.13 JTIDS frequency band.
Figure 7.14 JTIDS integration with the avionics system.
Figure 7.15 Nature of network-centric operations.
Figure 7.16 Sensor/shooter information grid.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Basic navigation parameters.
Figure 8.2 Earth-related coordinates.
Figure 8.3 Radio navigation using VOR, DME and automatic direction finding (ADF)...
Figure 8.4 Fundamentals of inertial navigation.
Figure 8.5 Wide-area augmentation system.
Figure 8.6 Local-area augmentation system.
Figure 8.7 Integrated GPS and inertial navigation.
Figure 8.8 Typical flight management system (FMS).
Figure 8.9 FMS control and display interface.
Figure 8.10 Typical FMS control and display unit.
Figure 8.11 Typical FMS CDU display data.
Figure 8.12 Top-level FMS functions.
Figure 8.13 Principle of operation of the EGPWS (TAWS).
Figure 8.14 DME principle of operation.
Figure 8.15 Principle of operation of a hyperbolic navigation system.
Figure 8.16 Typical LORAN-C chain – north-eastern United States.
Figure 8.17 ILS glideslope and localiser.
Figure 8.18 ILS guidance display.
Figure 8.19 ILS approach markers.
Figure 8.20 Microwave landing system coverage.
Figure 8.21 Principles of inertial navigation.
Figure 8.22 Typical triple INS system.
Figure 8.23 Sensor fusion of air data and inertial sensors.
Figure 8.24 B777 ADIRU.
Figure 8.25 Inertial platform implementation.
Figure 8.26 Initial space reference axis set X^(I), Y^(I), Z^(I).
Figure 8.27 Space axes to the Greenwich meridian X^(E), Y^(E), Z^(E).
Figure 8.28 Greenwich meridian axes to geographic axes X^(G), Y^(G), Z^(G).
Figure 8.29 True north axes to great circle route (navigation) X^(N), Y^(N), Z^(N).
Figure 8.30 Great circle/navigation to body axes (strapdown) X^(B), Y ^(B), Z^(B).
Figure 8.31 Process of platform alignment.
Figure 8.32 Aligned platform axes.
Figure 8.33 Historical development of inertial platforms.
Figure 8.34 Principles of GPS satellite navigation.
Figure 8.35 ANP versus RNP requirements.
Figure 8.36 RVSM – insertion of new flight levels.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Comparative development programmes.
Figure 9.2 F-16 mid-life upgrade (MLU) – avionics system top-level architecture.
Figure 9.3 MLU modular mission computer.
Figure 9.4 F-16E/F (Lockheed Martin).
Figure 9.5 Longbour Apache avionics architecture.
Figure 9.6 Fire control radar, RFI and RF-guided Hellfire. (Lockheed Martin)
Figure 9.7 M-TADS/PNVS – Arrowhead. (Lockheed Martin)
Figure 9.8 Apache M229 missile launcher. (Lockheed Martin)
Figure 9.9 Typical Longbow Apache weapons.
Figure 9.10 Eurofighter Typhoon (Eurofighter GmbH).
Figure 9.11 Eurofighter Typhoon avionics architecture.
Figure 9.12 Typhoon weapon carriage options. (BAE SYSTEMS)
Figure 9.13 F/A-22 – avionics system top-level architecture.
Figure 9.14 F/A-22 as Air Force photo and APG-77 radar. (Northrop Grumman)
Figure 9.15 F/A-22 cockpit schematic.
Figure 9.16 Nimrod MRA4 – avionics system top-level architecture.
Figure 9.17 Nimrod MR4 FMS based upon the Boeing 737 system.
Figure 9.18 F-35 – avionics system top-level architecture.
Figure 9.19 Aircraft store configuration examples (MIL-STD-1760D).
Figure 9.20 Examples of stores interfaces (MIL-STD-1760D)
Figure 9.21 AIM-9 Sidewinder.
Figure 9.22 AIM-132 ASRAAM. (BAE SYSTEMS © 2005)

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 The aircraft as a set of systems.
Figure 10.2 Historical view of utility systems control equipment.
Figure 10.3 Early indication of utility system signal numbers.
Figure 10.4 Principal utility system interfaces.
Figure 10.5 World’s first integrated utility management system.
Figure 10.6 Generic arrangement of a utility management systems processor.
Figure 10.7 Modern VMS architecture.
Figure 10.8 Generic utility system block diagram.
Figure 10.9 Longitudinal control forces on an unstable platform.
Figure 10.10 EAP control surface configuration.
Figure 10.11 EAP quadruplex flight control system architecture.
Figure 10.12 Landing gear system example.
Figure 10.13 Modern military ejection set – F-35 JSF Seat. (Martin Baker)
Figure 10.14 On-board oxygen generation system (Honeywell Aerospace Yeovil).
Figure 10.15 A secondary power/emergency power system.
Figure 10.16 VSCF cycloconverter as used on the F-18E/F.
Figure 10.17 F-22 power generation and distribution system.
Figure 10.18 Typical fighter aircraft fuel system – simplified.
Figure 10.19 Simplified air/environmental control system.
Figure 10.20 Prognostics system block diagram.
Figure 10.21 Vehicle systems requirements.
Figure 10.22 Processor and memory configuration.
Figure 10.23 Human–Machine Interface.
Figure 10.24 HOTAS concept in the F/A-18 Hornet.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Harrier GR.Mk3 cockpit (RAeS).
Figure 11.2 McDonnell Douglas F/A-18C cockpit.
Figure 11.3 Eurofighter Typhoon cockpit (BAE SYSTEMS).
Figure 11.4 F-22 Raptor crew station.
Figure 11.5 AH-64D Longbow Apache Cockpit (RAeS).
Figure 11.6 HUD optical arrangements.
Figure 11.7 Optical refraction.
Figure 11.8 HUD using refractive optics.
Figure 11.9 Refractive HUD instantaneous field of view.
Figure 11.10 Dual combiner (including FOV).
Figure 11.11 Jaguar/Harrier HUD installation (Smiths).
Figure 11.12 AV8B/Harrier GR7 night-attack HUD (with FOV) (Smiths).
Figure 11.13 Operational improvement of increased IFoV (BAE SYSTEMS).
Figure 11.14 Optical reflection.
Figure 11.15 Some possible reflective optic HUD configurations.
Figure 11.16 F-16 optical configuration (BAE SYSTEMS).
Figure 11.17 F-16 LANTIRN HUD (BAE SYSTEMS).
Figure 11.18 Eurofighter pupil-forming optical configuration (BAE SYSTEMS).
Figure 11.19 Eurofighter Typhoon HUD (BAE SYSTEMS).
Figure 11.20 HUD functional block diagram.
Figure 11.21 Typical HUD subassemblies (BAE SYSTEMS).
Figure 11.22 HUD FLIR image plus stroke symbology overlay (BAE SYSTEMS).
Figure 11.23 HUD primary flight symbology (BAE SYSTEMS).
Figure 11.24 Typical HUD air-to-surface bomb symbology (BAE SYSTEMS).
Figure 11.25 Typical HUD air-to-air symbology (BAE SYSTEMS).
Figure 11.26 Field-of-regard comparisons.
Figure 11.27 Possible uses of a HMD to cue, designate and aim ‘off-boresight’.
Figure 11.28 Normal helmet functions.
Figure 11.29 Optical head tracker (Kentron).
Figure 11.30 Comparison of HUD and HMD accuracy (BAE SYSTEMS).
Figure 11.31 Monocular or binocular configuration.
Figure 11.32 Typical optical configurations.
Figure 11.33 Generic HMD optical system.
Figure 11.34 IHADS helmet (Honeywell).
Figure 11.35 Jaguar helmet-mounted sight (BAE SYSTEMS).
Figure 11.36 Joint helmet-mounted cueing systems (JHMCS) (Kaiser Electronics).
Figure 11.37 Eurofighter Typhoon helmet-mounted display (BAE SYSTEMS).
Figure 11.38 Eurofighter Typhoon two-part helmet (BAE SYSTEMS).
Figure 11.39 JSF helmet mounted display (VSI).
Figure 11.40 Typical HMD system components.
Figure 11.41 Typical HMD miniature CRT.
Figure 11.42 Typical HMD symbology format (Thales).
Figure 11.43 Shadow-mask CRT.
Figure 11.44 CRT and AMLCD colour gamut.
Figure 11.45 ‘Hybrid’ (stroke + raster) operation.
Figure 11.46 Colour shadow-mask CRT MFD block diagram.
Figure 11.47 F/A-18 and AV-8B multipurpose colour display (MPCD) (Smiths).
Figure 11.48 AMLCD cell.
Figure 11.49 Colour group pixel structures.
Figure 11.50 AMLCD panel with drivers (Korry Electronics).
Figure 11.51 Single, cold-cathode, serpentine backlight (Korry Electronics).
Figure 11.52 Active matrix liquid crystal display MFD block diagram.
Figure 11.53 Integrated display unit (Smiths).
Figure 11.54 Microdisplay technologies.
Figure 11.55 Typical transmissive LCD device.
Figure 11.56 Reflective LCD projector (Kaiser Electronics).
Figure 11.57 Reflective LCD (LCoS) device structure.
Figure 11.58 DMD array (Texas Instruments).
Figure 11.59 DMD projector (Texas Instruments).
Figure 11.60 Projector optical elements.
Figure 11.61 Rear-projection head-down display (Kaiser Electronics and Brilliant...
Figure 11.62 Multiple projector ‘big picture’ HDD (Kaiser Electronics).
Figure 11.63 JSF helmet-mounted display (Kaiser Electronics).
Figure 11.64 JSF HMD optical arrangement (Kaiser Electronics).
Figure 11.65 OLED microdisplay (Cambridge Display Technology).
Figure 11.66 Virtual retinal display components (Microvision Inc.).
Figure 11.67 Prototype VRD helmet for rotorcraft applications (Microvision Inc.)...
Figure 11.68 HDD high ambient – sun rear scenario.
Figure 11.69 HDD high ambient – sun forward scenario.
Figure 11.70 HUD/HMD high ambient – sun forward scenario.
Figure 11.71 AMLCD HDD visual performance.
Figure 11.72 HUD visual performance.
Figure 11.73 Diagram of an image intensifier.
Figure 11.74 Cat’s eyes NVIS.
Figure 11.75 Conceptual diagram of the spectral distribution of NVIS-compatible ...

Supplemental Images

Plate 1 F/A 18 C Cockpit (McDonnell Douglas).
Plate 2 Eurofighter Typhoon Instrument Panel Layout (BAE SYSTEMS).
Plate 3 F16 Cockpit (Lockheed Martin).
Plate 4 Eurofighter Typhoon (BAE SYSTEMS).
Plate 5 Colour Shadow Mask CRT.
Plate 6 CIE 1976 UCS Chromaticity Diagram.
Plate 7 Eurofighter Typhoon MHDD (Smiths).
Plate 8 JSF ‘Big Picture’ Projection Head-Down Display (Rockwell Collins).

Telephone (+44) 1243 779777

Email (for orders and customer service enquiries): cs-books@wiley.co.uk

Visit our Home Page on www.wiley.com

Reprinted with corrections January 2007

All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except under the terms of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP, UK, without the permission in writing of the Publisher. Requests to the Publisher should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England, or emailed to permreq@wiley.co.uk, or faxed to (+44) 1243 770620.

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The Publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.

This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.

Other Wiley Editorial Offices

John Wiley & Sons Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA

Jossey-Bass, 989 Market Street, San Francisco, CA 94103-1741, USA

Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Boschstr. 12, D-69469 Weinheim, Germany

John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd, 42 McDougall Street, Milton, Queensland 4064, Australia

John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd, 2 Clementi Loop #02-01, Jin Xing Distripark, Singapore 129809

John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd, 22 Worcester Road, Etobicoke, Ontario, Canada M9W 1L1

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Moir, I. (Ian)

Military avionics systems/Ian Moir.

p. cm.

“Displays chapter contributed by Malcom Jukes.”

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-470-01632-9 (cloth : alk. paper)

1. Avionics. 2. Airplanes, Military–Electronic equipment.

3. Electronics in military engineering. I. Jukes, Malcom. II. Title.

UG1420.M565 2006

623.74′6049–dc22 2005031935

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN-13 978-0-470-01632-9 (HB)

Acknowledgements

This book has taken a long time to prepare and we would not have completed it without the help and support of colleagues and organisations who gave their time and provided information with enthusiasm.

We would especially like to thank Malcolm Jukes, Kevin Burke and Keith Atkin who reviewed a number of chapters, and to Leon Skorczewski who bravely reviewed the entire manuscript and provided valuable comments.

The following organisations kindly provided information and images:

BAE SYSTEMS
Brilliant Technology
Cambridge Display Technology
Eurofighter GmbH
Federation of American Scientists for UAV pictures and Nimrod R Mk 1
Honeywell
Honeywell Aerospace Yeovil
InfraRed 1
Kaiser Electronics
Kentron
Korry Electronics
L-3 WESCAM
Lockheed Martin
Lockheed Martin Fire Control
Martin Baker
Microvision Inc
Northrop Grumman Corporation
Raytheon
Rockwell Collins
Royal Aeronautical Society
SAAB Avitronics
Smiths Group
Texas Instruments
Thales
Thales Optronics
VSI

Special thanks to Marc Abshire, Randy Anderson, Myrna Buddemeyer, Ron Colman, Francesca De Florio, Joan Ferguson, Alleace Gibbs, Charlotte Haensel-Hohenhausen, Karen Hager, Dexter Henson, Clive Marrison, Katelyn Mileshosky, Ian Milne, Marianne Murphy, Shelley Northcott, Beth Seen, Kevin Skelton and Greg Siegel for their kind help in securing high quality images for inclusion in the book.

Aircraft pictures were obtained from the US Department of Defence Air Force Link website at www.af.mil: B-2 Spirit – US Air Force Photo by Tech Sgt Cecilio Ricardo; B-1B Lancer – US Air Force Photo by Senior Airman Michel B. Keller; A-10 Thunderbolt – US Air Force Photo by Senior Airman Stephen Otero; T-38 Talon US Air Force Photo by Staff Sgt Steve Thurow; C-5 US Air Force Photo by Master Sgt Clancy Pence, C-17 US Air Force Photo by Airman 1st Class Aldric Bowers; Predator US Air Force Photo by Master Sgt Deb Smith, Global Hawk by George Rohlmaller; E-JSTARS US Air Photo by Staff Sgt Shane Cuomo; F-117A Nighthawk US Air Force Photo by Staff Sgt Aaron D Allmon II; B-2 Spirit Bomber US Air Force Photo by Master Sgt Val Gempis;

VP-45 US Navy Squadron is acknowledged for the photograph of a MX-20 turret on P-3 aircraft.

We would like to thank the staff at John Wiley who took on this project part way through its progress and guided us to a satisfactory conclusion.

Introduction

Evolution of Avionics

Avionics is a word coined in the late 1930s to provide a generic name for the increasingly diverse functions being provided by AVIation electrONICS. World War II and subsequent Cold War years provided the stimulus for much scientific research and technology development which, in turn, led to enormous growth in the avionic content of military aircraft. Today, avionics systems account for up to 50% of the fly-away cost of an airborne military platform and are key components of manned aircraft, unmanned aircraft, missiles and weapons. It is the military avionics of an aircraft that allow it to perform defensive, offensive and surveillance missions.

A brief chronology of military avionics development illustrates the advances that have been made from the first airborne radio experiments in 1910 and the first autopilot experiments a few years later. The 1930s saw the introduction of the first electronic aids to assure good operational reliability such as blind flying panels, radio ranging, non-directional beacons, ground-based surveillance radar, and the single-axis autopilot. The 1940s saw developments in VHF communications, identification friend or foe (IFF), gyro compass, attitude and heading reference systems, airborne intercept radar, early electronic warfare systems, military long-range precision radio navigation aids, and the two-axis autopilot. Many of these development were stimulated by events leading up to World War II and during the war years.

The 1950s saw the introduction of tactical air navigation (TACAN), airborne intercept radar with tracking capability and Doppler radar, medium pulse repetition frequency (PRF) airborne intercept radar, digital mission computers and inertial navigation systems. The 1960s saw the introduction of integrated electronic warfare systems, fully automated weapon release, terrain-following radar, automatic terrain following, the head-up display laser target marketing technology and the early digital mission computer.

Over the years, as specialist military operational roles and missions have evolved, they have often driven the development of role-specific platforms and avionics. Looking across the range of today’s airborne military platforms, it is possible to identify categories of avionics at system, subsystem and equipment levels that perform functions common to all platforms, or indeed perform unique mission-specific functions.

Technology improvements in domestic markets have driven development in both commercial and military systems, and the modern military aircraft is likely to contain avionic systems that have gained benefit from domestic computing applications, especially in the IT world, and from the commercial aircraft field. This has brought its own challenges in qualifying such development for use in the harsh military environment, and the challenge of meeting the rapid turnround of technology which leads to early obsolescence.

Avionics as a Total System

An avionics system is a collection of subsystems that display the typical characteristics of any system as shown in Figure I.1. The total system may be considered to comprise a number of major subsystems, each of which interacts to provide the overall system function. Major subsystems themselves may be divided into minor subsystems or equipment which in turn need to operate and interact to support the overall system. Each of these minor subsystems is supported by components or modules whose correct functional operation supports the overall system. The overall effect may be likened to a pyramid where the total system depends upon all the lower tiers.

Avionics systems may be represented at a number of different levels as described below:

A major military task force may comprise a large number of differing cooperating platforms, each of which contributes to the successful accomplishment of the task force mission. Within this context an individual strike aircraft or surveillance platform avionics system may represent one component of many within the task force.
At the individual platform or aircraft level, a collection of subsystems and components or modules operate to support the successful completion of the primary role of the platform, be it reconnaissance, strike, support or surveillance.
The individual equipment that supports the overall system of the platform is a collection of units or modules, control panels and displays, each of which has to operate correctly to support subsystem and overall system operation.
Finally, the electronic modules that form the individual components of the aircraft avionics systems may be regarded as systems within their own right, with their own performance requirements and hardware and software elements.

**Figure I.1** Avionics as a ‘system of systems’.

**Figure I.2** Product breakdown structure of a military aircraft system.

In general within this book, most discussion is centred upon the aircraft-level avionics system and upon the major subsystems and minor subsystems or equipment that support it. Passing reference to the higher-level system is made during brief coverage of network centric operations. In some cases the detailed operation of some components such as data buses is addressed in order that the reader may understand the contribution that these elements have made to advances in the overall integration of platform avionics assets.

The product breakdown structure of a military aircraft system is shown in Figure I.2.

Increasing Complexity of Functional Integration

As avionics systems have evolved, particularly over the past two or three decades, the level of functional integration has increased dramatically. The nature of this increase and the accompanying increase in complexity is portrayed in Figure I.3.

In the early stages, the major avionics subsystems such as radar, communications, navigation and identification (CNI), displays, weapons and the platform vehicle could be considered as discrete subsystems, the function of which could be easily understood. The performance requirements could be relatively easily specified and captured, and, although there were information interchanges between them, each could stand alone and the boundaries of each subsystem was ‘hard’ in the sense that it was unlikely to be affected by the performance of a neighbouring subsystem.

**Figure I.3** Increase in functional integration over time.

As time progressed, the functionality of each subsystem increased and some boundaries blurred and functions began to overlap. Also, the number of subsystems began to increase owing to the imposition of more complex mission requirements and because of the technology developments that furnished new sensors. Improved data processing and higher bandwidth data buses also contributed to providing much higher data processing capabilities and the means to allow the whole system to become more integrated.

Further technology developments added another spiral to this trend, resulting in greater functionality, further increasing integration and with a blurring of functional boundaries as subsystems became able to share ever greater quantities of data. This evolution has been a continual process, although it is portrayed in three stages in Figure I.3 for reasons of simplicity.

The outcome of this evolution has been to increase: performance; sensor types; functionality; cost; integration; complexity; supportability (reuse); software programs in terms of executable code; memory requirements; throughput; reliability; data handling; data links; and obsolescence.

The result has been to decrease: size; weight; power consumption; and technology windows.

Organisation of the Book

This book is organised to help the reader to comprehend the overarching avionics systems issues but also to focus on specific functional areas. Figure I.4 shows how the various chapters relate to the various different major functional subsystems.

The book provides a military avionics overview aimed at students and practitioners in the field of military avionics.

Chapter 1 lists and describes the roles that military air forces typically need to perform. It is the understanding of these roles that defines the requirements for a particular suite of avionics, sensors and weapons for different platforms.

Chapter 2 examines the technology that has led to different types of system architecture. This technology has resulted in sophisticated information processing structures to transfer high volumes of data at high rates, and has resulted in greatly increased functional integration.

The subject of radar is covered in Chapter 3 which describes radar basic principles, while Chapter 4 explains some of the advanced features that characterise different types of radar used for specific tasks.

Chapter 5 deals with electrooptical (EO) sensors and their use in passive search, detection and tracking applications. This includes a description of the integration of EO sensor applications in turrets and pods, as well as personal night vision goggles.

Chapter 6 looks at the sensitive, and often highly classified, field of electronic warfare and the gathering of intelligence by aircraft using sophisticated receiving equipment and processing techniques.

**Figure I.4** Military avionics functional subsystems.

Chapter 7 is concerned with communications and identification; this describes the mechanisms by which an aircraft is identified to other stakeholders such as air traffic control and to friendly forces, as well as the different form of communications available for speech and encrypted data.

Chapter 8 covers the subject of navigation and the means by which pilots are able to navigate precisely to their engagement zones, understand their location during and after an engagement and return safely to home base. This makes maximum use of military and civilian navigation aids, using state-of-the-art on-board systems.

Chapter 9 addresses the subject of weapons carriage and guidance to give an understanding of the integrated weapon system. Individual weapons types are described, together with the systems required to ensure that they can be aimed and released to maximum effect.

Chapter 10 deals with the vehicle management system; those systems that provide the platform with power, energy and management of basic platform control functions. Although provided as a separate control system today, it is inevitable that these functions will be absorbed into mission system processing in the future.

Chapter 11 covers part of the human-machine interface – the displays in the cockpit and the mission crew areas that enable the crew to prosecute the operational mission. This chapter deals with the technology of displays and provides numerous examples of display systems in military applications.

The authors believe that this volume will complete the set of companion volumes that describe the aircraft general, avionic and mission systems, as well as the way in which they are developed. This series provides a guide to the interested public, to students and to practitioners in the aerospace field. It should be recognised that this book, like its companion volumes, only scratches the surface of a series of complex topics. Within the book we have provided a comprehensive bibliography as a guide to specialised volumes dealing in detail with the topics outlined here, and it is to be hoped that the reader will continue to read on to understand aviation electronic systems.