Cover
Preface
Acknowledgments
Part I: Fundamentals and Approaches
1. 1 An Overview of Corrosion in Oil and Gas Industry: Upstream, Midstream, and Downstream Sectors
  1. 1.1 Introduction
  2. 1.2 Corrosion in Upstream Production Operations
  3. 1.3 Corrosion in Midstream Sector
  4. 1.4 Corrosion in Downstream Sector
  5. 1.5 Conclusions and Outlook
  6. References
2. 2 Fundamentals of Corrosion and Corrosion Control in Oil and Gas Sectors
  1. 2.1 Introduction
  2. 2.2 Material Degradation and Corrosion
  3. 2.3 Electromotive Force (EMF) Series and Galvanic Series
  4. 2.4 Forms of Corrosion
  5. 2.5 Factors Influencing Oilfield Corrosion
  6. 2.6 Corrosion Control
  7. 2.7 Conclusions and Outlook
  8. References
3. 3 Environmental Factors Affecting Corrosion Inhibition in Oil and Gas Industry
  1. 3.1 Introduction
  2. 3.2 Environmental Factors Affecting Corrosion Inhibition
  3. 3.3 Conclusions and Outlook
  4. References
4. 4 Key Materials in Oil and Gas Production and the Choice of Inhibitors
  1. 4.1 Introduction
  2. 4.2 Materials in Oil and Gas Industry
  3. 4.3 The Choice of Corrosion Inhibitor for Oil and Gas Production
  4. 4.4 Principles of CI Qualification Tests
  5. 4.5 Conclusions and Outlook
  6. References
5. 5 Corrosion Inhibition in Oil and Gas Industry: Economic Considerations
  1. 5.1 Introduction
  2. 5.2 Corrosion: Global Economic Loss
  3. 5.3 Depreciation in Oil and Gas Industries
  4. 5.4 Fiscal Impacts
  5. 5.5 Inhibition: Monetary Measures
  6. 5.6 Conclusions and Outlook
  7. References
Part II: Choice of Inhibitors
1. 6 Corrosion Inhibitors for Acidizing Process in Oil and Gas Sectors
  1. 6.1 Introduction
  2. 6.2 Acidizing Process
  3. 6.3 Application of Corrosion Inhibitors in Acidizing Processes
  4. 6.4 Selected Acidizing Inhibitors
  5. 6.5 Conclusions and Outlook
  6. References
2. 7 Corrosion Inhibitors for Sweet Oilfield Environment (CO₂ Corrosion)
  1. 7.1 Introduction
  2. 7.2 Mechanism of CO2 Corrosion
  3. 7.3 Factors Affecting Sweet Corrosion
  4. 7.4 Toward Inhibition and Control of Sweet Corrosion
  5. 7.5 Altering Corrosion Kinetics with Corrosion Inhibitors
  6. 7.6 Corrosion Inhibitors for Sweet Oilfield Environments
  7. 7.7 Biocorrosion in Saturated CO₂ Media
  8. 7.8 Conclusions and Outlook
  9. References
3. 8 Corrosion Inhibitors for Sour Oilfield Environment (H₂S Corrosion)
  1. 8.1 Introduction
  2. 8.2 Corrosion Inhibitors for Sour Oilfield Environment
  3. 8.3 Conclusions and Outlook
  4. References
4. 9 Corrosion Inhibitors for Refinery Operations
  1. 9.1 Introduction
  2. 9.2 Areas/Units Where Inhibitors Are in Demand in Refineries
  3. 9.3 Types of Aggressive Species Encountered in Refineries
  4. 9.4 Common Types of Inhibitors Employed/Reported in Refinery Units
  5. 9.5 Conclusions and Outlook
  6. References
5. 10 Inhibitors for High-Temperature Corrosion in Oil and Gas Fields
  1. 10.1 Introduction
  2. 10.2 High-Temperature Corrosion in Oil and Gas Fields
  3. 10.3 Mechanism of High-Temperature Corrosion in Oil and Gas Field
  4. 10.4 Categories and Choice of Inhibitors for Oil and Gas High-Temperature Corrosion
  5. 10.5 Conclusions and Outlook
  6. References
6. 11 Experience in Using Chemicals to Mitigate Corrosion in Difficult Corrosive Environments in the Oil and Gas Industry
  1. 11.1 Introduction
  2. 11.2 Corrosion Inhibition for Systems with High Amounts of H₂S
  3. 11.3 Corrosion Inhibition for CO₂ Tertiary Flood Systems and CO₂ Sequestration
  4. 11.4 Corrosion Inhibition in Deepwater Systems
  5. 11.5 Corrosion Inhibition at High Temperatures
  6. 11.6 Conclusions and Outlook
  7. References
7. 12 Polymeric Corrosion Inhibitors for Oil and Gas Industry
  1. 12.1 Introduction
  2. 12.2 Polymeric Corrosion Inhibitors
  3. 12.3 Conclusions and Outlook
  4. References
8. 13 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion Inhibition in Oil and Gas Industry
  1. 13.1 Introduction
  2. 13.2 Biofilm Formation
  3. 13.3 Microbial Communities Related to Corrosion
  4. 13.4 Potential Prevention Strategies
  5. 13.5 Recent Developments of Chemical Inhibitors to Mitigate MIC
  6. 13.6 Biological Inhibition of MIC
  7. 13.7 Conclusions and Outlook
  8. References
9. 14 Vapor Phase Corrosion Inhibitors for Oil and Gas Field Applications
  1. 14.1 Introduction
  2. 14.2 Magna International VPCIs
  3. 14.3 Corrosion and Its Control in OGI
  4. 14.4 Vapor Phase Corrosion Inhibitors
  5. 14.5 Conclusions and Outlook
  6. Acknowledgments
  7. References
10. 15 Mechanisms of Inhibitor Action: Passivation and Self-Healing
  1. 15.1 Introduction
  2. 15.2 Systematics and Phenomenology
  3. 15.3 Surface Active Inhibitors
  4. 15.4 Case Study (1): Imidazoline-Based Surfactant for Mitigation of Mild Steel Corrosion in the Presence of CO₂
  5. 15.5 Case Study (2): The Interaction of 2-Mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) with Copper
  6. 15.6 Case Study (3): β-Cyclodextrin Facilitates Release of Inhibitors
  7. 15.7 Conclusions and Outlook
  8. References
Part III: Interaction with Co-additives
1. 16 Antiscalants and Their Compatibility with Corrosion Inhibitors
  1. 16.1 Introduction
  2. 16.2 Scale Formation
  3. 16.3 Scale Mitigation Strategy
  4. 16.4 Antiscalant Chemistry
  5. 16.5 Antiscalant Function Mechanisms
  6. 16.6 Antiscalant Treatment
  7. 16.7 Compatibility with Corrosion Inhibitors
  8. 16.8 Conclusions and Outlook
  9. References
2. 17 Hydrate Inhibitors and Their Interferences in Corrosion Inhibition
  1. 17.1 Introduction
  2. 17.2 Gas Hydrate Blockage Formation Process
  3. 17.3 Hydrates Inhibition Strategies with Alcohols or Glycols
  4. 17.4 Kinetic Hydrate Inhibitors
  5. 17.5 Interaction Between Hydrate and Corrosion Inhibitors
  6. 17.6 Conclusions and Outlook
  7. References
3. 18 Sulfide Scavengers and Their Interference in Corrosion Inhibition
  1. 18.1 Introduction
  2. 18.2 Sulfide Scavengers: Types and Properties
  3. 18.3 Corrosion and Fouling Inhibiting/Inducing Properties of Scavengers and Their Compatibility with Co-additives
  4. 18.4 Conclusions and Outlook
  5. References
Index
End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1
1. Table 1.1 Differences between CO₂ and H₂S systems.
2. Table 1.2 Values of “A” appearing in Eq. (1.10).
3. Table 1.3 General criteria for selecting treatment dosage.
Chapter 2
1. Table 2.1 Steel used for construction of offshore platforms.
2. Table 2.2 Steel consumption in oil and gas wells ∼2000 m deep.
3. Table 2.3 Steel consumption in in-field pipelines.
4. Table 2.4 Seawater and produced water ionic composition.
5. Table 2.5 Standard EMF series [2, 3].
6. Table 2.6 Galvanic series in seawater [4].
7. Table 2.7 Variation ni CO₂ corrosion rate with salinity and HCO₃ ⁻ conce...
8. Table 2.8 pK _a values of different acids.
Chapter 4
1. Table 4.1 Example of tubular products as defined in ISO 15156-2.
2. Table 4.2 Overview of items to be included in the definition of the CI-IOW.
3. Table 4.3 A list of normative references.
Chapter 5
1. Table 5.1 Annual corrosion cost in major sectors of the US oil and gas indust...
Chapter 6
1. Table 6.1 Dissolving power of various acids.
2. Table 6.2 Different types of acids used.
3. Table 6.3 Corrosion inhibition performance at 95 °F.
4. Table 6.4 Corrosion inhibition performance at or above 194 °F.
5. Table 6.5 Promising recently patented inhibitors.
Chapter 7
1. Table 7.1 Some examples of imidazoline derivatives utilized as corrosion inhi...
2. Table 7.2 Some examples of cyclic and acyclic non-imidazoline compounds utili...
3. Table 7.3 Few examples of natural and synthetic polymers utilized as corrosio...
4. Table 7.4 Some examples of plant biomass extracts and other materials utilize...
Chapter 8
1. Table 8.1 Sour corrosion inhibitors based on amine chemistry.
2. Table 8.2 Sour corrosion inhibitors based on imidazoline chemistry.
3. Table 8.3 Examples of gemini surfactant-based inhibitors for low carbon steel...
4. Table 8.4 A list of commercially available corrosion inhibitor products.
Chapter 9
1. Table 9.1 Refinery units treated with corrosion inhibitors.
2. Table 9.2 Chemical structures of some common filming amines.
Chapter 10
1. Table 10.1 Temperature dependence of the inhibiting effect on iron of propyno...
2. Table 10.2 Different structures of high-temperature inhibitors.
3. Table 10.3 Structures of some organic high-temperature inhibitors based on tr...
4. Table 10.4 Corrosion inhibition of N80 steel in boiling 15% HCl at 105±2°C...
5. Table 10.5 High-temperature corrosion inhibition by quaternary compounds.
Chapter 12
1. Table 12.1 Some modified polymers as effective acid cleaning inhibitors.
2. Table 12.2 Guideline for acid selection for acidizing.
3. Table 12.3 Some effective polymeric inhibitors for acidizing condition.
4. Table 12.4 Some polymeric corrosion inhibitors designed for sweet and sour en...
Chapter 13
1. Table 13.1 Family of bacteria that are regarded imperative in oilfield MIC.
2. Table 13.2 Polymer stability to prevent microbial attack.
3. Table 13.3 Different non-oxidizing inhibitors with their advantages and disad...
4. Table 13.4 Recent developments in biocides for mitigating MIC.
Chapter 14
1. Table 14.1 A list of associations and organizations dealing with oil and gas ...
2. Table 14.2 Corrosion inhibitors' producers and products.
3. Table 14.3 Magna International VBCI and VPCI registered products.
4. Table 14.4 Summary of reported VPCIs.
5. Table 14.5 Summary of VPCIs and their structure.
Chapter 18
1. Table 18.1 A classification of sulfide scavengers based on current literature...
2. Table 18.2 A classification of scavengers based on crude oil and process prop...

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1
1. Figure 1.1 Simplified upstream and midstream process flow diagrams for (a) o...
2. Figure 1.2 Schematic of a typical oil well.
3. Figure 1.3 Schematic of types of oil and gas wells.
4. Figure 1.4 Gathering line, feeder line, transmission line, and distribution ...
Chapter 2
1. Figure 2.1 Tubing corrosion in a well producing oil, water, and gas.
2. Figure 2.2 External pitting corrosion on the external surface (up to top 13 ...
3. Figure 2.3 Pitting corrosion on the external surface of drill pipe in high s...
4. Figure 2.4 Internal corrosion of aboveground hydrocarbon storage tanks.
5. Figure 2.5 Localized corrosion on the external surface of tubing.
6. Figure 2.6 Pinhole leakage due to internal corrosion in gas carrying well fl...
7. Figure 2.7 Electrochemical corrosion cell.
8. Figure 2.8 Formation of grains and grain boundaries during cooling of alloys...
9. Figure 2.9 Uniformly corroded carbon steel surface.
10. Figure 2.10 Selective attack on the internal surface at the thread juncture ...
11. Figure 2.11 Crevice corrosion between pipe bottom and pipe support.
12. Figure 2.12 Different morphologies of pitting corrosion.
13. Figure 2.13 Deep, round, and elongated pits at the internal surface of tubin...
14. Figure 2.14 Grains and grain boundaries in carbon steel at room temperature
15. Figure 2.15 Corrosion attack along the grain boundaries [13].
16. Figure 2.16 Bullet marks of erosion–corrosion.
17. Figure 2.17 Erosion–corrosion failure of wellhead bean of a gas well. (a) Fa...
18. Figure 2.18 Wear mark on the internal surface of tubing due to rubbing betwe...
19. Figure 2.19 Erosion–corrosion at the bend of a duplex stainless steel pipe.
20. Figure 2.20 Failure due to erosion–corrosion in the elbow section. (a) Damag...
21. Figure 2.21 Changeover 3 in. × 6 in. diameter, gas producer with 4.5% CO₂, e...
22. Figure 2.22 Schematics of under-deposit corrosion.
23. Figure 2.23 Acid attack by spent acid flowing back through the well tubing a...
24. Figure 2.24 Typical saucer-shaped localized corrosion due to bacteria.
25. Figure 2.25 Selective protection of steel wetted by crude oil.
26. Figure 2.26 Corrosion along 6 o'clock in a well fluid pipeline [14].
27. Figure 2.27 Different shapes of corrosion damage along 6 o'clock of well flu...
Chapter 3
1. Figure 3.1 Morphologies of corrosion product layers formed on P110 carbon st...
2. Figure 3.2 The average corrosion rates obtained by weight loss method at var...
3. Figure 3.3 Corrosion current density (i _corr) and corrosion rate of carbon st...
4. Figure 3.4 Effect of fluid velocity on the IE (%) and (i _corr) in presence an...
5. Figure 3.5 SEM micrographs of galvanized steel (KCGL) after four weeks expos...
6. Figure 3.6 Potentiodynamic polarization curves of E690 steel in 3.5% NaCl wi...
7. Figure 3.7 Plot of corrosion rates as a function of the H₂S concentration in...
8. Figure 3.8 Potentiodynamic polarization curves of X.65 steel engrossed in oi...
9. Figure 3.9 SEM and EDX analysis for X-65 carbon steel surface. (a) Abraded s...
10. Figure 3.10 Polarization curves of carbon steel at different molar ratios of...
11. Figure 3.11 (a–c) Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) microg...
12. Figure 3.12 Internal corrosion of a pipeline caused by microbiologically inf...
13. Figure 3.13 SEM micrographs of the biofilm incubated in SRB media after 4 da...
14. Figure 3.14 Effect of pH on the corrosion potential-time data of mild steel ...
15. Scheme 3.1 Probable mechanism for iron dissolution in aqueous solutions cont...
Chapter 4
1. Figure 4.1 Example of material selection diagram in oil and gas process diag...
2. Figure 4.2 Bubble test glass cells under electrochemical LPR measurements.
3. Figure 4.3 Experimental setup used for water corrosivity measurement during ...
4. Figure 4.4 Experimental setup used for the emulsion tests.
5. Figure 4.5 Experimental setup used for the foaming tests.
6. Figure 4.6 Experimental setup for wheel tests.
7. Figure 4.7 Experimental setup for corrosion loop tests..
8. Figure 4.8 Experimental setup used and measurement cell for the jet impingem...
Chapter 5
1. Figure 5.1 Total cost of corrosion in Gulf Cooperation Council Countries in ...
2. Figure 5.2 Corrosion management strategy response of organizations from diff...
3. Figure 5.3 Notorious accidents in oil and gas fields: (a) Piper Alpha offsho...
4. Figure 5.4 Domino theory model for corrosion failures.
5. Figure 5.5 Alberta, Canada Production Pipeline Failure Data for 1980–2005.
Chapter 6
1. Figure 6.1 Acid flowing through a sandstone matrix pore system.
2. Figure 6.2 Acid-induced wormholes.
3. Figure 6.3 Chemical structures of some corrosion inhibiting triazole derivat...
4. Figure 6.4 Condensation products of aromatic aldehydes and p-phenylenediamin...
5. Figure 6.5 Condensation products of aromatic aldehydes and thiosemicarbazide...
6. Figure 6.6 Aromatic aldehyde derivatives.
7. Figure 6.7 Benzylidene derivatives.
8. Figure 6.8 Mercapto-triazole derivative.
9. Figure 6.9 Mercapto-oxa-diazole derivatives.
10. Figure 6.10 Thiosemicarbazone derivatives.
11. Figure 6.11 Macrocyclic compounds investigated as corrosion inhibitors.
12. Figure 6.12 Naphthyridine derivatives.
13. Figure 6.13 Pyrimidine derivatives.
14. Figure 6.14 Pyran derivatives.
Chapter 7
1. Figure 7.1 Factors affecting CO₂ corrosion.
2. Figure 7.2 Cyclic voltammograms (CVs) for steel coupons exposed to CO₂-satur...
3. Figure 7.3 Tafel polarization (a) and Nyquist curves (b) for Q235 steel subs...
4. Figure 7.4 SEM micrographs of N80 steel surfaces after exposure to CO₂-satur...
5. Figure 7.5 Polarization curves of N80 steel in CO₂-saturated 1 wt% NaCl solu...
6. Figure 7.6 SEM micrographs of exposed carbon steel substrates showing the ex...
Chapter 8
1. Figure 8.1 NACE MR 0175/ISO 15156 “region of service” for sour conditions.
2. Figure 8.2 Chemical structures of (a) primary, (b) secondary, and (c) tertia...
3. Figure 8.3 Chemical structures of some potent amine-based sour corrosion inh...
4. Figure 8.4 Isomeric forms of imidazolines: (a) 2-imidazoline, (b) 3-imidazol...
5. Figure 8.5 Chemical structures of typical imidazoline-based sour corrosion i...
6. Figure 8.6 Structure of gemini surfactant with (a) spacer between the hydrop...
7. Figure 8.7 Chemical structures of selected gemini surfactants-based sour cor...
Chapter 9
1. Figure 9.1 A simplified schematic of a typical oil refinery.
2. Figure 9.2 Schematic of crude distillation units.
3. Figure 9.3 Schematic of delayed coker.
Chapter 10
1. Figure 10.1 Potentiodynamic polarization curves, for iron immersed in 0.1 N ...
2. Figure 10.2 (a) Penetration of oxidation with temperature for some selected ...
3. Figure 10.3 Potentiodynamic polarization curves for N80 steel in 15% HCl in ...
4. Scheme 10.1 Formulations from the combination of the inhibitors. (a) Reactio...
Chapter 11
1. Figure 11.1 View of sulfur deposit at a sampling point in a high H₂S Canadia...
2. Figure 11.2 Amounts of sulfur deposited from a Canadian line with high amoun...
3. Figure 11.3 Schematic diagram showing liquefied CO₂ injection.
Chapter 12
1. Figure 12.1 Enhanced corrosion inhibition performance by modified polymers. ...
2. Figure 12.2 Scanning electron microscope images for low carbon steel in (a) ...
3. Figure 12.3 Polarization curves illustrating the effectiveness of functional...
4. Figure 12.4 Controlled synthesis of dendrimer-based inhibitor.
5. Figure 12.5 Zwitterionic groups, which have been incorporated in polymers: a...
Chapter 13
1. Figure 13.1 Development of bacterial biofilm on the on stainless steel AISI ...
2. Figure 13.2 FE-SEM image of biofilm generated by SRB isolated from a sour cr...
3. Figure 13.3 MIC mitigation measures/solutions.
4. Figure 13.4 Schematic illustration of corrosion inhibition mechanism by nitr...
5. Figure 13.5 Schematic illustration of corrosion inhibition by bacteria produ...
Chapter 14
1. Figure 14.1 Schematic illustration of the several varieties of VPCI applicat...
2. Figure 14.2 Tankers for transportation of crude petroleum from producer coun...
3. Figure 14.3 VPCI molecules are absorbed on the steel surface forming an anti...
4. Figure 14.4 Chemical compounds used for the production of volatile corrosion...
5. Figure 14.5 Pipes covered with VPCI packaging and uncovered.
Chapter 15
1. Figure 15.1 Overview over three different classifications of corrosion inhib...
2. Figure 15.2 Scheme showing important electrochemical effects of (a) anodic a...
3. Figure 15.3 Structural motif of tall oil fatty acid diethylenetriamine (TOFA...
4. Figure 15.4 (a) Structure of 2-mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) as tautomeric equ...
5. Figure 15.5 Scheme illustrating the interaction of MBT with copper (a) at a ...
6. Figure 15.6 Structure of β-cyclodextrin (β-CD): (a) 3D cone-like s...
7. Figure 15.7 Scheme illustrating the release of a β-CD[MBT] complex from an o...
Chapter 16
1. Figure 16.1 Illustration of scale formation process.
2. Figure 16.2 The free energy change associated with nucleation.
3. Figure 16.3 Chemical structures of phosphonate antiscalants.
4. Figure 16.4 Chemical structures of commonly used polymeric antiscalants.
5. Figure 16.5 Chemical structures of copolymeric antiscalants.
6. Figure 16.6 Chemical structures of polymeric antiscalants for squeeze applic...
7. Figure 16.7 Chemical structures of triethanolamine phosphate ester.
8. Figure 16.8 Chemical structures of biodegradable antiscalants.
9. Figure 16.9 Chemical structures of two common halite antiscalants.
10. Figure 16.10 Interference of antiscalant on crystal growth.
11. Figure 16.11 Antiscalant return profile after squeeze treatment.
12. Figure 16.12 Illustration of encapsulated antiscalant product (size: 1–3 mm)...
13. Figure 16.13 Encapsulated antiscalant product application.
Chapter 17
1. Figure 17.1 (a) Natural gas and water mixture at 100 bar and 4.0°C. (b) Ins...
2. Figure 17.2 Thermodynamic equilibrium conditions of natural gas hydrates: pu...
3. Figure 17.3 Gas consumption curve during the formation of gas hydrates. Time...
Chapter 18
1. Figure 18.1 Generalized reaction system for the H₂S scavenging with triazine...

Preface

Corrosion is a critical problem that can be found in all industries worldwide. Corrosion is particularly severe in the oil and gas industry due to the large amounts of metallic based assets located throughout the entire supply chain. The oil and gas sectors consumed a considerable percentage of the total global corrosion cost, which has exceeded US$2.5 trillion in 2016. Two of the most critical types of corrosion prevalent in oil and gas sectors are sweet (CO₂-induced) corrosion and sour (H₂S-induced) corrosion. These constitute well-known challenges in the industry because they inflict severe damage on the internal walls of oil and gas pipelines. Corrosion mitigation strategies commonly adopted include the use of corrosion-resistant alloys, protective coatings and linings, cathodic protection and the use of corrosion inhibitors. Amongst these techniques, the use of corrosion inhibitors is the most effective and practical method of corrosion control.

There are three parts to this book: (I) Fundamentals and Approaches, (II) Choice of Inhibitors, and (III) Interaction with Co-additives. The part I has chapters focusing on principles and processes in the oil and gas industry, the types of corrosion encountered and their control methods, environmental factors affecting inhibition, material selection strategies and economic aspects of corrosion. The part II of the book has chapters on corrosion inhibitors for acidizing processes, inhibitors for sweet and sour corrosion, inhibitors in refinery operations, high-temperature corrosion inhibitors, inhibitors for challenging corrosive environments, inhibitors for microbiologically influenced corrosion, polymeric inhibitors, vapor phase inhibitors and smart controlled release inhibitor systems. Part III has chapters on industrial co-additives and their interference with corrosion inhibitors such as antiscalants, hydrate inhibitors and sulfide scavengers.

Part I starts with a chapter (Chapter 1) on the principles and processes in the upstream, midstream and downstream sectors of oil and gas industry. The chapter provides a detailed account of the different processes in each division, causes and types of corrosion, inhibitor selection criteria and challenges, and inhibitor application methods. The chapter also provides a thorough description of problems encountered and protective measures with specific processes and units within each sector. Chapter 2 brings a good account of the fundamentals of different types of corrosion in various sectors and their control strategies. The chapter presents the complicated corrosion fundamentals in the most straightforward way. Chapter 3 provides an account of the several environmental factors affecting corrosion inhibition that includes temperature, pressure, pH, microbes, and acidic gases. Chapter 4 presents a summary of material selection in oil and gas sectors from the corrosion point of view. The chapter also provides a good account of corrosion inhibitor laboratory selection processes. The last chapter of this part (Chapter 5) gives an interesting report on current and forthcoming economic aspects of corrosion and corrosion inhibition in oil and gas industries.

Part II begins with a chapter (Chapter 6) on corrosion inhibitors for acidizing processes. Acidizing is commonly performed on new wells to maximize their initial productivity and on aging wells to restore productivity and maximizing the recovery of the energy resources. Different types and selection of acids used for the processes and various inhibitors suitable for the acidizing process are explained. Chapters 7 and 8 respectively discuss corrosion inhibitors for sour and sweet environments. Corrosion in the presence of acid gases such as CO₂ and H₂S is recognized as a severe problem in the oil field industries. Chapter 7 explains explicitly the mechanism of CO₂ corrosion and various factors affecting sweet corrosion. Corrosion inhibitors for sweet oilfield environments; both based on smaller molecules and macromolecules are highlighted. Chapter 8 provides a good account of the background and factors affecting sour corrosion. The applicable corrosion inhibitors for sour field are discussed under four sections: amine-based, imidazoline-based, gemini surfactant-based, and polymer-based. Chapter 9 focusses on refinery corrosion inhibitors. The chapter summarizes the main process units in crude oil refineries, types of aggressive species, and common type of inhibitors employed in refinery units. Chapter 10 deals with the inhibitors for high-temperature corrosion in oil and gas fields. Mechanism of high-temperature oxidation, sulfidation, carburization, chlorination, and nitridation is explained, and the various inhibitors for application are discussed. Chapter 11 summarizes the corrosion inhibitor developments for four extreme corrosive conditions viz. high sour systems, CO₂ tertiary flood systems and sequestration, subsea tie-back systems, and wells with high temperatures. Chapter 12 provides a detailed description of the author's research and development of several polymeric corrosion inhibitors. Both the natural and synthetic polymers are discussed. Chapter 13 presents a vivid account of inhibitors for microbiologically induced corrosion, which is one of the most important types of corrosion encountered in the industry. Chapter 14 gives a description of vapor phase corrosion inhibitors for its potential application in oil and gas sectors. The last chapter of this section (Chapter 15) describes novel and exciting concepts of slow and controlled release inhibitor systems. The chapter provides an interesting description of systematic and phenomenology of corrosion inhibitors and three case studies explaining the concept of the mechanism of passivation and self-healing.

Part III starts with a chapter (Chapter 16) on the antiscalants and their compatibility with corrosion inhibitors. The chapter provides a good description of antiscalant chemistry. The impact of corrosion inhibitor on antiscalant performance and the impact of antiscalant on corrosion inhibitor performance were explained. Chapter 17 gives an excellent description of hydrate inhibition strategies and interaction between hydrate inhibitors and corrosion inhibitors. Chapter 18 provides a concise account of sulfide scavengers and their interference in corrosion inhibition. Sulfide scavenger is a preferred additive to eliminate various sulfide species in produced water, produced gas, crude oil, and refinery products.

By this book, we have made a good effort to collectively present all the information available on the development and application of corrosion inhibitors for oil and gas sectors. Both academic and industrial scientists contributed chapters. Given the absence of a specific book in this area, we hope that the present book will be a handy reference tool for scientists and engineers working with corrosion inhibitors for the oil and gas industry.

31 July 2019

Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

Viswanathan S. Saji

Saviour A. Umoren

Corrosion Inhibitors in the Oil and Gas Industry

Preface

Acknowledgments

Part I
Fundamentals and Approaches