LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT IN ORGANISATIONS
Strategy, Evidence and Practice
Thomas Garavan, Carole Hogan, Amanda Cahir-O’Donnell & Claire Gubbins
Published by Oak Tree Press, Cork, Ireland
www.oaktreepress.com / www.SuccessStore.com
© 2020 Thomas Garavan, Carole Hogan, Amanda Cahir-O’Donnell, Claire Gubbins
A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN 978 1 78119 429 4 (hardback)
ISBN 978 1 78119 431 7 (ePub)
ISBN 978 1 78119 432 4 (Kindle)
ISBN 978 1 78119 433 1 (PDF)
Cover image: Preechar Bowonkitwanchai / 123rf.com
Cover design: Kieran O’Connor Design
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CONTENTS
Figures
Tables
Abbreviations
Foreword
Preface
Pedagogical Features
Structure
Acknowledgements
SECTION 1: CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS OF L&D IN ORGANISATIONS
Chapter 1: L&D: Concepts, Context and Processes
Learning Objectives
Key Concepts
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Defining L&D
1.2.1 Learning
1.2.2 Training
1.2.3 Development and Education
1.2.4 Instruction and Teaching
1.2.5 Human Resource Development and Workplace Learning
Case Study 1.1: L&D in PwC
1.3 The Historical Evolution of L&D in Organisations
1.3.1 The Emergence of the Classroom and Structured Onthe-job Training
1.3.2 eLearning and Digitisation
1.3.3 Blended Learning
1.3.4 Social Learning
1.3.5 Personalised learning
1.4 The Context of L&D
1.4.1 The External Context of L&D
Case Study 1.2: L&D and the Gig Economy
1.4.2 The Changing Organisational Context
1.4.3 Changes in Perspectives on Managing People
1.5 Defining Strategic L&D
1.5.1 Strategic L&D: Approach and Philosophy
1.5.2 The Case for Investment in Strategic L&D
Critical Reflection 1.1
Critical Reflection 1.2
Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 1
Conclusion
Summary
Review Questions
Strategic L&D in Action 1
Case Study 1.3: Investing in the Development of Employees: Amazon, Google, Dell and Intel
Further Reading
Chapter 2: Strategic L&D in Organisations: Theory, Frameworks, Structures and Governance
Learning Objectives
Key Concepts
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Theoretical Perspectives: Explaining the Contribution of L&D
2.2.1 The Universalistic Approach to L&D
Critical Reflection 2.1
2.2.2 The Contingency Approach to L&D
2.2.3 The Configurational Approach to L&D
Case Study 2.1: L&D in InfoSys
2.2.4 The Architectural Approach to L&D
2.3 Explaining the Link between L&D, Individual and Organisational Performance
2.3.1 Human Capital Theory and L&D
2.3.2 The Resource-based View and L&D
2.3.3 The Behavioural Approach and L&D
2.3.4 Ability-Motivation-Opportunity Theory and L&D
2.3.5 Attribution Theory and L&D
2.3.6 Social Exchange Theory and L&D
2.4 Conceptual Frameworks to Understand L&D in Organisations
2.4.1 The Systematic L&D Model
2.4.2 The Open Systems Training Model
2.4.3 Garavan’s Process Model of L&D
2.4.4 Fairhurst’s Future L&D Scenarios Approach
2.4.5 Ulrich & Brockbank’s Updated Model and Caldwell’s Change Model
Case Study 2.2: Implementing a New Vision at Virgin Trains – The Role of L&D
2.5 Structuring L&D in Organisations
2.5.1 L&D Structure Considerations
2.5.2 Structural Options for the L&D Function
2.5.3 L&D Governance in Organisations
Critical Reflection 2.2
Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 2
Conclusion
Summary
Review Questions
Strategic L&D in Action 2
Case Study 2.3: L&D Strategy and the ESB’s Brighter Future Strategy
Further Reading
Chapter 3: Strategic L&D: Strategy, Processes and Resources
Learning Objectives
Key Concepts
3.1 Introduction
3.2 What is L&D Strategy?
3.3 How Does L&D Strategy Support Organisational Strategy?
3.3.1 L&D Supporting Business Strategy
3.3.2 L&D’s Role in Shaping Strategy
Case Study 3.1: People Strategy in the Irish Police Force
3.4 Developing L&D Strategy: Content Issues
3.4.1 Why does L&D Matter?
3.4.2 What Should L&D Strategy Focus On?
3.4.3 How Will L&D Be Facilitated?
3.4.4 Where Does Responsibility for L&D Sit?
3.4.5 Who Supports L&D?
3.5 Developing L&D Strategy: Process Issues
3.6 Developing L&D Strategy: Implementation Issues
3.6.1 Successful Implementation of L&D Strategy
3.6.2 Executive and Senior Management Responsibility for L&D Strategy Implementation
3.6.3 The Role of the Line Manager in L&D Strategy Implementation
3.6.4 The Role of the Employee in L&D Strategy Implementation
3.6.5 The Role of L&D Professionals in L&D Strategy Implementation
Case Study 3.2: Using L&D to Implement Strategy in the Raffles Hotel
Critical Reflection 3.1
3.7 Resourcing L&D in Organisations
3.7.1 Financial Resources
3.7.2 Physical Resources
3.7.3 Human Resources
3.8 Developing a Learning Culture and Climate
Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 3
Conclusion
Summary
Review Questions
Strategic L&D in Action 3
Case Study 3.3: Stryker’s Global Engineering Development Programme
Further Reading
SECTION 2: THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF L&D
Chapter 4: Adult Learning, Learner Motivation and Engagement
Learning Objectives
Key Concepts
4.1 Introduction
4.2 What Are Learning and Learning Outcomes?
4.3 The Historical Evolution of Adult Learning Theory
Critical Reflection 4.1
4.3.1 Pedagogy and Andragogy
4.3.2 Scaffolding and Guided Discovery Learning
4.4 Categories of Adult Learning Theory
4.4.1 Instrumental Learning Theories
4.4.2 Humanistic Learning Theories
4.4.3 Transformative Learning Theory
4.4.4 Social Theories of Learning
4.4.5 Recent Theories of Adult Learning
4.5 Adult Learning Styles
4.5.1 Kolb’s Learning Style Theory
4.5.2 Honey & Mumford’s Learning Styles
4.5.3 The VARK Model
4.5.4 Implications for L&D
Critical Reflection 4.2
4.6 Multiple Intelligences and Adult Learning
4.7 Training Motivation and Engagement
4.7.1 Training Motivation
Case Study 4.1: What Is Autonomous Learning and What Does It Mean for Employees?
4.7.2 Training Engagement Theory
4.8 Misconceptions about Adult Learning in Organisations
4.8.1 Learners Over a Certain Age Cannot Learn
4.8.2 Technophobia
4.8.3 The Person Who Learns Fast Is Best Suited to the Job
4.8.4 Strong Correlation Between Academic Success and Performance On-the-job
4.8.5 People Learn All They Need to Know On-the-job
4.8.6 People Learn Nothing from Mistakes
4.8.7 People Learn All They Need to Know at the Beginning of Their Career
4.8.8 Telling and Exhorting by an Instructor is the Same as Learning by Listening
Case Study 4.2: Designing Training for Older Employees
4.9 The Implications of Adult Learning Theories for L&D
4.9.1 Sequencing the Training Material
4.9.2 Whole versus Part Learning
4.9.3 Setting Objectives and Sub-objectives
4.9.4 Providing a Meaningful Context for Learning
4.9.5 Directing Attention, Guidance, Prompting and Cueing
4.9.6 Practice and Rehearsal
4.9.7 Distribution of Practice
4.9.8 Feedback, Knowledge of Results and Reinforcement
4.9.9 Retention and Forgetfulness
Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 4
Conclusion
Summary
Review Questions
Strategic L&D in Action 4
Case Study 4.3: Personalised and Self-directed Learning at Mastercard
Further Reading
Chapter 5: Identifying and Prioritising L&D Needs
Learning Objectives
Key Concepts
5.1 Introduction
5.2 What Are Learning Needs and Learning Needs Analysis?
5.3 Approaches to L&D Learning Needs Analysis
5.3.1 The Analytical Approach
5.3.2 The Competency Approach
5.3.3 The Problem-solving Approach
5.3.4 The Strategic L&D Approach
Case Study 5.1: Identifying L&D at Nestlé
Critical Reflection 5.1
5.4 L&D Needs Analysis: Organisational, Job / Task and Individual Levels
5.4.1 Organisational L&D Needs Analysis
Critical Reflection 5.2
5.4.2 Job / Task Analysis
5.4.3 Individual / Person Level Analysis
Case Study 5.2: Learning Needs Analysis in Small Organisations: An Informal Approach
5.5 Why Identifying L&D Needs is Important
5.5.1 The Benefits of L&D Needs Analysis
5.5.2 Responding to L&D Triggers in Organisations
5.6 Who Should Be Involved in the L&D Needs Assessment Process?
5.7 L&D Needs Analysis Methods
5.7.1 L&D Needs Analysis Methods at the Organisational Level
5.7.2 L&D Needs Assessment Methods at the Job / Task Level
5.7.3 L&D Needs Analysis Methods at the Person Level
5.8 Analysing L&D Data and Determining L&D Priorities
5.9 Challenges Encountered when Conducting L&D Needs Analysis
5.9.1 Political Considerations
5.9.2 Poor L&D Processes and Expertise
5.9.3 Lack of Leadership and Employee Buy-in to the Needs Analysis process
5.9.4 Time, Cost and Confidentiality Issues
Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 5
Conclusion
Summary
Review Questions
Strategic L&D in Action 5
Case Study 5.3: Identifying the Training Needs of Loco Pilots at Indian Rail
Further Reading
Chapter 6: Designing Classroom, Digital, Blended and Flipped Learning Solutions
Learning Objectives
Key Concepts
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Defining the Key Components of the L&D Design Process
6.3 The Make or Buy Decision and L&D
6.4 Designing L&D: Models and Approaches
6.4.1 The ADDIE Model
6.4.2 The Instructional Systems Design Model
6.4.3 The Rapid Prototyping Model
6.4.4 The Layers of Negotiation Model
Case Study 6.1: Meeting the Learning Needs of Boomers and Seniors
6.5 The Development of Learning Objectives
6.5.1 Typologies of Learning Objectives
Critical Reflection 6.1
6.6 Developing Classroom Learning Content
6.6.1 Strategies to Develop Learning Content for the Classroom
6.7 Designing and Developing Digital Learning Solutions
6.7.1 What is Digital Learning?
6.7.2 Designing Effective Digital Learning Solutions
Case Study 6.2: Using Technology to Deliver L&D in Hewlett Packard
6.8 Designing Blended and Flipped Learning Solutions
6.8.1 What Are Blended and Flipped Learning?
Critical Reflection 6.2
6.8.2 Using Blended and Flipped Learning
Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 6
Conclusion
Summary
Review Questions
Strategic L&D in Action 6
Case Study 6.3: Designing and Delivering Induction and Initial Training at Chill Insurance
Further Reading
Chapter 7: Off-the-job L&D Methods
Learning Objectives
Key Concepts
7.1 Introduction
7.2 L&D Methods: Formal and Informal Methods
7.2.1 What is a L&D Method?
7.2.2 The Spectrum of L&D Methods
7.2.3 L&D Methods and Business Strategy
Critical Reflection 7.1
7.2.4 What Does Formal Mean in the Context of Off-the-job and On-the-job Learning Methods?
Case Study 7.1: Du Pont’s STOP Safety Training Programme
7.2.5 Informal L&D Methods
7.3 How L&D Methods Differ
7.3.1 Learning Modality
7.3.2 Learning Environment
7.3.3 Location of Learning and Trainer
7.3.4 Trainer Presence
7.3.5 Interactions Between Learners and Trainers
7.3.6 Time Demands
7.3.7 Cost Issues
7.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Formal Off-the-job L&D Methods
7.4.1 Didactic Formal Off-the-job L&D Methods
7.4.2 Experiential Formal Off-the-job L&D Methods
Case Study 7.2: Using Action-based Learning in Heineken to Develop Front-line Managers
Critical Reflection 7.2
Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 7
Conclusion
Summary
Review Questions
Strategic L&D in Action 7
Case Study 7.3: Using Blended Learning Methods in Starbucks to Develop Front-line Employees
Further Reading
Chapter 8: On-the-job L&D Methods
Learning Objectives
Key Concepts
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Key Features of Structured On-the-job Training
8.2.1 Near-the-job Training
8.3 Different Types of Structured On-the-job L&D
8.3.1 Job Instruction Training
8.3.2 Development Discussions and Planning
Critical Reflection 8.1
Case Study 8.1: Flight Attendant Training at JetBlue
8.3.3 Job Performance Aids
8.3.4 Job Rotation and Transfers
8.3.5 Job Shadowing
8.3.6 Internships
8.3.7 Apprenticeships
8.3.8 Coaching
8.3.9 Mentoring
8.4 Using Informal L&D Methods in Organisations
8.4.1 Different Types of Informal On-the-job Learning Methods
8.5 Micro Learning in Organisations
Case Study 8.2: Informal Learning in Small Organisations
8.6 Blended Learning and the 70:20:10 Model
8.6.1 The Concept of Blended Learning
8.6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Blended Learning
8.6.3 The 70:20: 10 Model
Critical Reflection 8.2
8.7 When are Structured Off-the-job and On-the-job and Informal L&D Methods Appropriate?
8.7.1 Learning Objectives
8.7.2 Learner Characteristics
8.7.3 Trainer Characteristics
8.7.4 Organisational Context, Cost and Resource Issues
Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 8
Conclusion
Summary
Review Questions
Strategic L&D in Action 8
Case Study 8.3: Training within Industry and Toyota
Further Reading
Chapter 9: Implementing and Delivering Classroom-based L&D in Organisations
Learning Objectives
Key Concepts
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Defining Training Implementation and Delivery
9.3 Instruction versus Facilitation
Critical Reflection 9.1
9.3.1 Trainer Style and Effectiveness
9.3.2 Trainer Presence in the Classroom
9.4 Applying Learning Theory to the Delivery of Classroom Training
9.4.1 Pre-training Interventions
9.4.2 Interventions During Training
Case Study 9.1: Using Humour in the Classroom
9.5 Developing Lesson Plans for Classroom Training
9.6 Delivering a Classroom Training Session Using Instruction and Facilitation
9.6.1 Using Instruction to Deliver Training
9.6.2 Using Facilitation in Training
Critical Reflection 9.2
9.7 Creating an Effective Classroom Training Environment
9.7.1 Seating Arrangements for Effective Training
9.7.2 Training Site, Materials, Equipment and Scheduling
9.8 Delivering Training in the Classroom: Key Challenges
9.8.1 Disruptive Learners in the Classroom
9.8.2 Challenges for L&D Practitioners in Delivering Classroom Training
Case Study 9.2: Using the Classroom to Onboard Employees at Bristol-Myers Squibb
Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 9
Conclusion
Summary
Review Questions
Strategic L&D in Action 9
Case Study 9.3: Cultural Differences in Reactions to L&D Methods
Further Reading
Chapter 10: Using Technology to Deliver L&D in Organisations
Learning Objectives
Key Concepts
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Defining Technology-based Learning and Digital Learning
10.3 The Shift to Technology-based Training and Digital Learning
10.3.1 Shifts in Thinking about Learning
10.3.2 The Changing Performance Agenda for L&D
10.3.3 The Emergence of New Technology Tools
10.4 eLearning
10.4.1 Instructor-led or Self-directed
10.4.2 Asynchronous or Synchronous
10.4.3 Effectiveness and Advantages / Disadvantages
Critical Reflection 10.1
10.5 Massive Open Online Courses
10.6 Mobile Learning
10.6.1 Accessibility
10.6.1 Distractibility
Case Study 10.1: Mobile Learning at Merrill Lynch
10.7 Gamification and L&D
Case Study 10.2: Using Games in the Deloitte Leadership Academy
10.8 Computer-based Simulations, Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality and Training
10.8.1 Virtual Reality
10.8.2 Virtual Worlds
10.8.3 Augmented Reality
10.9 Learning Management Systems and L&D
10.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Technology-based Training and Digital Learning
10.10.1 Advantages and Disadvantages for Learners
10.10.2 Advantages and Disadvantages for L&D Specialists
10.10.3 Advantages and Disadvantages for Organisations
Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 10
Conclusion
Summary
Review Questions
Strategic L&D in Action 10
Case Study 10.3: Virtual Reality and Training of Employees in Walmart
Further Reading
Chapter 11: Social, Collaborative and Collective Learning in Organisations
Learning Objectives
Key Concepts
Introduction
11.2 Defining Social, Collaborative and Collective Learning Processes
11.2.1 How do Social, Collaborative and Collective Learning Differ?
Critical Reflection 11.1
11.3 Different Types of Social, Collaborative and Collective Learning
11.3.1 Learning in Networks
11.3.2 Collective Team Learning
11.3.3 Learning in Communities of Practice
11.3.4 The Learning Organisation and Organisational Learning
Critical Reflection 11.2
11.4 Social Media and the New Social Learning
11.4.1 The New Social Learning
11.4.2 Social Media and Social Learning
Case Study 11.1: Using Social Media for Training in Marks & Spencer
11.5 Collective Social Learning Processes and Tools
11.5.1 Learning Circles and Organisational Dialogue
11.5.2 Advocacy and Inquiry
11.5.3 Open Space Technology
11.5.4 World Café
11.5.5 Time out of Time
Case Study 11.2: Social learning: The Sea Salt Learning Approach
11.6 Contextual Conditions Facilitating Social, Collaborative and Collective Learning
11.6.1 Learning Culture
11.6.2 Teamwork
11.6.3 Trust and Social Capital
11.6.4 Leadership, Champions and Communication
11.6.5 Resources
Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 11
Conclusion
Summary
Review Questions
Strategic L&D in Action 11
Case Study 11.3: Citigroup’s Journey to a Culture of Continuous Learning
Further Reading
Chapter 12: Transfer of Training in Organisations
Learning Objectives
Key Concepts
12.1 Introduction
12.2 What is Training Transfer?
12.3 Why is Training Transfer Important for Organisations?
12.4 Transfer of Training Theory
12.4.1 The Theory of Identical Elements
12.4.2 The Stimulus Generalisation Theory
12.4.3 The Cognitive Theory of Transfer
12.5 The Training Transfer Process
12.5.1 Baldwin & Ford’s Model of the Training Transfer Process
12.5.2 The Kontoghiorghes Model
12.5.3 Haskell’s Taxonomy of Transfer and Transfer Principles
12.6 The Learning Transfer Environment
Case Study 12.1: Embedding Training in Wegmans
12.7 Facilitating Training Transfer: Strategies Before, During and After Training
12.7.1 Transfer of Training Strategies Before Training
12.7.2 Transfer of Training Strategies During Training
12.7.3 Transfer of Training Strategies After Training
Critical Reflection 12.1
Case Study 12.2: Using Brain Science to Enhance Training Transfer
12.8 Training Transfer Interventions
12.8.1 Transfer of Training Interventions at the End of Training
12.8.2 Transfer of Training Interventions On-the-job Post Training
12.9 Auditing your Organisation’s Training Transfer Potential
Critical Reflection 12.2
Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 12
Conclusion
Summary
Review Questions
Strategic L&D in Action 12
Case Study 12.3: Embedding Compliance in BNP Paribas
Further Reading
Chapter 13: Evaluating L&D in Organisations
Learning Objectives
Key Concepts
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Defining Evaluation and How It Differs from Related Concepts
13.3 Why Evaluate L&D?
13.3.1 The Case for Evaluating L&D
13.3.2 Barriers to Evaluating L&D
Critical Reflection 13.1
13.4 Models of Training Evaluation
13.4.1 Kirkpatrick’s Hierarchical Model of Evaluation and New World Kirkpatrick Model
Case Study 13.1: How Johnson & Johnson Trains Doctors
13.4.2 The COMA Model of Evaluation
13.4.3 The Decision-based Evaluation Model
13.4.4 The Integrated Model of Training Evaluation and Effectiveness
13.4.5 The Multilevel Training Evaluation Taxonomy
13.4.6 The Omnidirectional Training Evaluation Model
13.5 Conducting Evaluations: Process and Outcome Evaluations
13.5.1 Process Evaluation
13.5.2 Outcome Evaluation
Case Study 13.2: What Are Organisations Doing to Evaluate L&D?
13.5.3 Measuring Job Behaviour
13.5.4 Measuring Organisational Results
Critical Reflection 13.2
13.6 Data Collection Designs for Training Evaluation
Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 13
Conclusion
Summary
Review Questions
Strategic L&D in Action 13
Case Study 13.3: GE’s Brilliant Learning Programme
Further Reading
Chapter 14: Return on Investment and Learning Analytics
Learning Objectives
Key Concepts
Introduction
14.2 Defining Return on Investment, Learning Analytics and Evidence-based L&D
14.2.1 Return on Investment
14.2.2 Learning Analytics
14.2.3 Evidence-based L&D
14.3 Why Organisations Calculate Return on Investment
14.3.1 Does L&D Make a Difference? Some Findings
14.4 Costing L&D
14.4.1 Distinguishing Learning, Training and Opportunity Costs
14.4.2 Direct and Indirect Costs
14.5 Measuring the Benefits of Training
14.6 Calculating Return on Investment on Training
Case Study 14.1: Measuring the Return on Investment in L&D in Wipro
14.6.1 Different Return on Investment Methodologies
14.6.2 Utility Analysis and Break-Even Analysis
14.6.3 The Balanced Scorecard and L&D
Critical Reflection 14.1
14.7 Learning Analytics and L&D
14.7.1 Defining Learning Analytics
14.7.2 Benchmarks and Data Analytics
14.7.3 Evidence-based L&D
Case Study 14.2: Why Has Our Training Stopped Working?
Critical Reflection 14.2
14.7.4 L&D and Big Data
14.8 Implementing Return on Investment and L&D Data Analytics
Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 14
Conclusion
Summary
Review Questions
Strategic L&D in Action 14
Case Study 14.3: How Are Organisations Using Learning Analytics?
Further Reading
SECTION 3: DEVELOPING THE L&D PROFESSIONAL AND THE FUTURE ROLES OF L&D
Chapter 15: Changing L&D Roles, Competence Development and Professional Ethics
Learning Objectives
Key Concepts
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Defining the L&D Professional Role in Organisations
15.2.1 Expectations of Organisational Stakeholders about L&D
15.3 The Spectrum of L&D Roles in Organisations
15.3.1 L&D Provider
Case Study 15.1: What Does Research Tell Us about L&D Roles in Organisations?
15.3.2 Internal Consultant and Advisor
15.3.3 Boundary Spanner and Business Partner
15.3.4 Change Agent
15.3.5 Capacity and Capability-building
15.3.6 Facilitator of Transformational Learning
Critical Reflection 15.1
15.4 The Competencies of L&D Professionals
15.4.1 Business, Financial and Technical Competencies
15.4.2 Managerial Competencies
15.4.3 Cognitive Competencies
15.4.4 Relationship-building, Collaborative Working and Networking Competencies
15.4.5 L&D Competencies and Expertise
15.5 Developing the L&D Professional in Organisations
15.5.1 Defining Continuous Professional Development
15.5.2 Continuous Professional Development Strategies for L&D Practitioners
Critical Reflection 15.2
15.6 Professionalism, Ethics and the L&D Practitioner
15.6.1 The Nature of Professionalism
15.6.2 Ethics and L&D
Case Study 15.2: Manager of a Community Training Project to a Senior L&D Role: A Developmental Journey
15.6.3 The Principles-based Approach and Codes of Professional Practice
Best Available Evidence to Inform Practice 15
Conclusion
Summary
Review Questions
Strategic L&D in Action 15
Case Study 13.3: Aligning the L&D Role in Service Organisations
Further Reading
Chapter 16: The Future of L&D in Organisations
Learning Objectives
Key Concepts
16.1 Introduction
16.2 The Changing Landscape of L&D
16.2.1 Future Worlds of Work: Implications for L&D
Critical Reflection 16.1
16.3 Delivering L&D in a Globalised World
16.3.1 Strategic Purposes of L&D in a Global Context
Case Study 16.1: What Is Invisible L&D?
16.3.2 National Culture and L&D
16.3.3 Developing L&D for Global L&D Roles
16.4 Changing Perspectives on L&D in Organisations
16.4.1 Generational Attitudes towards L&D in Organisations
16.4.2 Life-long and Continuous Independent Learning
16.4.3 Personalisation, Individualisation and Differentiation of L&D
16.4.4 Learners as Co-Creators of Learning
Critical Reflection 16.2
Case Study 16.2: Artificial Intelligence and L&D
16.4.5 Employees Paying for Their Own Learning in Organisations
16.5 Future Opportunities and Challenges for L&D
16.5.1 Future Proofing L&D in Organisations
16.5.2 Green L&D, Sustainability and Society
16.5.3 L&D and Human Dignity at Work
Conclusion
Summary
Review Questions
Strategic L&D in Action 16
Case Study 16.3: 21st Century Skills and Digital Skills: Is L&D ready?
Further Reading
Bibliography
Glossary
About the Authors
Index
FIGURES
1.1 Research Insight: Why Might Organisations Adopt Some L&D Practices and Reject Others? Possible Explanations
2.1 An Open Systems Model of L&D
2.2 Garavan’s Model: A Contextual and Dynamic Framework for Strategic Human Resource Development
2.3 Future Models of L&D in Organisations
2.4 The Business Partner Model Applied to L&D
2.5 The Four Constellations of L&D in Organisations
2.6 The Elements of Effective L&D Governance
3.1 L&D Strategy and Organisation Strategy: Key Assumptions, Consequences and Implications
3.2 Approaches to Aligning L&D Strategy with Organisational Strategy
3.3 Key Dimensions of L&D Strategy and Influencing Factors
3.4 Developing an Adaptive, Agile and Ambidextrous Organisation through L&D Practice
3.5 Guiding Questions for L&D Professionals in Developing a L&D Strategy
3.6 Levels of Senior Management Support for Training and Development
3.7 How to Engage and Ensure the Support of Line Managers for L&D
3.8 Key Trends in L&D Expenditure
4.1 The New Dimensions of Reflection
4.2 Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model
4.3 Using Metaphors to Understand the Learning Process in Organisations
4.4 A Stage Model of Training Motivation
4.5 A Model of Training Engagement
5.1 The L&D Needs Analysis Process
5.2 Examples of L&D Triggers in Organisations
5.3 Mager & Pipe’s Performance Analysis Flowchart for Determining Solutions to Performance Problems
5.4 Can a Performance Issue Can Be Addressed through L&D?
5.5 Making Sense of Job Performance Gaps
5.6 L&D Needs Analysis: Guidelines for Practice
6.1 The Make or Buy Decision and L&D
6.2 The ADDIE Model Updated
6.3 The Purposes of Learning Objectives
6.4 Questions to Consider When Setting Learning Objectives
6.5 The CRAMP Model and Learning Methods
6.6 Guidelines for Sequencing the Content of Training Programmes
6.7 Reasons for Interactivity in the Design of Digital Learning Solutions
6.8 Guidelines for Digital Learning Content, Graphics and Multimedia Development
6.9 Blended Learning in Organisations
6.10 Potential Combinations of a Blended Approach
6.11 The Components of a Flipped Classroom
6.12 Factors that Influence the Selection of Blended Learning Approaches in Organisations
6.13 Examples of Course Learning Objectives, with Corresponding Technology-enabled Pre-work and In-class Activities
7.1 The Spectrum of L&D Methods
7.2 The L&D Methods Matrix and Proximity to Business Strategy
8.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Near-the-job Training Strategy
8.2 A Conceptual Framework of Informal Learning in the Workplace
8.3 Concepts and Versions of Micro Learning
8.4 Components of the 70:20:10 Model
9.1 An Instructional-style Framework
9.2 The Cone of Learning
9.3 Skills for Effective Facilitation
9.4 Training Room Seating Arrangements
9.5 Types of Problem Participants in the Classroom
10.1 The Spectrum of Social Interaction among Learners and Trainers
10.2 Research Guidelines for eLearning Design
10.3 Designing Interactive Websites for Training
10.4 The Characteristics of Mobile Learning
10.5 The Modern Learner in Organisations
11.1 Individual and Collective Learning Processes
11.2 The Characteristics of the New Learning Organisation
11.3 What the New Social Learning Is Not
11.4 Guidelines for Effective Organisational Dialogue
11.5 The Advocacy / Inquiry Matrix
11.6 World Café Guidelines: Seven Design Principles
12.1 The Baldwin & Ford Training Transfer Model
12.2 The Kontoghiorghes Model
12.3 Management Support for Training Transfer
12.4 The Five As Model of Self-managed Training Transfer
12.5 A Training Transfer Audit Checklist
13.1 The New World Kirkpatrick Model
13.2 The Integrated Model of Training Evaluation and Effectiveness
13.3 The Multilevel Training Evaluation Taxonomy
13.4 The Omnidirectional Training Evaluation Framework
13.5 Process Evaluation: Prior to Delivery and During Delivery of Training
13.6 Open and Closed Questions
13.7 Examples of Subjective Tests to Assess Learning
13.8 Anderson’s Value of Learning Model
13.9 Training Evaluation Data Collection Designs
14.1 A Training and Development Cost Classification Matrix
14.2 Calculating the Rate of Return on Investment
14.3 Calculating Return on Investment for L&D: Questions for L&D Specialists
14.4 Preparing a Cost-Benefit Analysis: Key Guidelines
14.5 The Training Impact Measurement Framework
14.6 Big Data Golden Rules for L&D
14.7 The Bersin Learning Business Maturity Model
15.1 What Is Self-development?
15.2 The Spectrum of L&D Roles in Organisations
15.3 The ACADMIES Framework for L&D
15.4 The Challenges for L&D as Facilitator of Transformational Learning
15.5 A Continuing Professional Development Framework for L&D Practitioners
15.6 Motivations for Pursuing Professional Certification
15.7 Dimensions of Professionalism and L&D Professionals
15.8 An Ethical Lens for L&D Practitioners
16.1 L&D and the Global Mindset
16.2 The Scope of Continuous Independent Learning
16.3 A Framework for Learners as Co-creators of Learning in Organisations
16.4 New Learning Innovations with Web 4.0
16.5 Can We Future-proof the Workforce Using Neuroscience?
TABLES
1.1 Classic Definitions of Learning
1.2 A Brief History of L&D in Organisations
2.1 Key Success Factors and Limitations of a Shared Services Approach to L&D
4.1 Pedagogy and Andragogy: Knowles’ Approaches Compared
4.2 Multiple Intelligences: Implications for Learners and Trainers
5.1 Questions to Ask about Problems and Opportunities
5.2 Stakeholder Perceptions of Organisational Problems: Analysis Levels
5.3 Involving Organisational Actors in the Needs Analysis Process
6.1 Key L&D Design Decision Areas and Questions
6.2 Examples of Ineffective and Effective Learning Objectives
6.3 Domains and Levels of Learning
7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Formal Classroom Off-the-job Learning Methods
7.2 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Group-oriented Experiential Learning Methods
8.1 Enhancing the Effectiveness of Development Discussions
8.2 Key Trends in Blended Learning
9.1 Differences between Instruction and Facilitation
9.2 Problems Encountered in Instruction and Facilitation Roles
9.3 Trainee Group Maturity and Trainer Style
9.4 Strategies to Enhance Trainer Presence
9.5 Presentation Instructional Strategies
9.6 Materials for Effective Training
10.1 Definitions of Technology-based Training Methods
10.2 The American Psychological Association’s Learner-centred Psychological Principles
10.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of eLearning
10.4 Differences between eLearning and Mobile Learning
10.5 Key Dimensions of Gamification in the Context of Instructional Design
10.6 Differences between Gamification and Games-based Learning
10.7 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Learning Management Systems
10.8 Web-based Training: Learner, L&D Specialists and Organisational Perspectives
11.1 Indicators of Community of Practice
11.2 Social Media Descriptions, Uses, Pros and Cons
11.3 Strategies to Encourage Purposeful Advocacy and Inquiry and to Deal with an Impasse
12.1 What We Know about Training Transfer
12.2 Learning Transfer Environment Factors
12.3 The Characteristics of a Positive Training Transfer Environment
12.4 Actions to Support Training Transfer
13.1 Differences between Process and Outcome Evaluation
13.2 Evaluation and Links to Similar Terms and Processes Used in L&D
13.3 Stakeholder Contributions and Inducements to Evaluation of L&D
13.4 The Application of the Kirkpatrick Model to L&D Practice
13.5 Design Criteria and Structure for Reaction Questionnaire Construction
13.6 The Characteristics of Different Data Collection Methods
14.1 The Design / Time Ratio for Different Types of Learning Activities
14.2 Examples of Cost-effectiveness Evaluation for Different Training Activities in Organisations
14.3 Different Types of Learning Analytics
14.4 Benchmarks, Metrics and Data Analytics Contrasted
15.1 The Relationship between Competencies and L&D Roles in Organisations
15.2 The Dimensions of Foundational Competencies and L&D Expertise
15.3 A Principles-based Approach – Advantages and Implementation
16.1 The Four Worlds of Work: Implications for L&D
16.2 Generational Differences, Learning Preferences, Motivation to Learn and Learning Methods
16.3 Comparing Whole Training Room, Differentiation, Personalisation and Individualisation Approaches to Corporate Training
16.4 The Key Dimensions of Learning 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0
16.5 Strengths and Weaknesses of Training and Development Pay-back Clauses
16.6 Capabilities, Competencies and Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes for a Sustainability Strategy
ABBREVIATIONS
AC abstract conceptualisation
ACT Adaptive Character of Thought model
ADDIE Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation model
AE active experimentation
AHRD Academy of Human Resource Development
AI artificial intelligence
AMO ability-motivation-opportunity
AO Advanced Operations division (Stryker)
API application programming interface
AR augmented reality
ATI aptitude-treatment interaction
BCR benefit cost ratio
BMT behaviour modelling training
BPO business process outsourcing
BRIC Brazil, Russia, India, and China
CAD computer aided design
CAM computer aided manufacturing
CE concrete experience
CEO chief executive officer
CIPD Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development
CITI Citigroup Inc.
CLO chief learning officer
CMS course management system
COMA Cognitive, Organisational Environment, Motivation, Attitudes model
COOC corporate open online course
CoP community of practice
CPD continuous professional development
CSR corporate social responsibility
CSS cascading style sheet
DOT Development Opportunity Tool (Intel)
EESS economic, environmental and social sustainability
EPSS eLearning performance support system
ERPG ethnocentric, polycentric, regiocentric and geocentric
G2G Googler-to-Googler (Google)
GDM Global Delivery Model (Infosys)
HCN home country national
HPWP high performance work practice
HQ headquarters
HR human resource
HRD human resource development
HRD human resources department
HRM human resources management
HTMLS hypertext mark-up language server-side
ICT information and communication technology
IDP individual development plan
IITD Irish Institute of Training and Development
IMTEE Integrated Model of Training Evaluation and Effectiveness
INGO international nongovernmental organisation
IP intellectual property
ISD instructional system design
IT information technology
J&J Johnson & Johnson
JIT job instruction training
JIT Just-in-time
KBI key business indicator
KPI key performance indicator
KSA knowledge, skills and abilities
L&D learning and development
LCMS learning content management system
LMS learning management system
LTE learning transfer environment
LTSI Learning Transfer System Inventory
M&A mergers and acquisitions
M&S Marks & Spencer
MNC multinational corporation
MOOC massive open online course
OHP overhead projector (slides)
OWL Web ontology language
PCN parent country national
PDF portable document format
Q&A question and answer
RBV resource-based view
RO reflective observation
ROE return on expectation
ROI return on investment
SDL self-directed learning
SEED School Earth Education
SHRD strategic human resource development
SME subject matter expert
SOP standard operating procedure(s)
SPARQL Semantic protocol and RDF query language
SPOC small private online course
SSW social semantic web
STOP Safety Training Observation Program (DuPont)
TCN third country national
TOOT Time out of Time
TWI Training within Industry
UN United Nations
US United States (of America)
USA United States of America
VARK Visual-Auditory-Read-Kinaesthetic model
VLE virtual learning environment
VLS virtual learning system
VR virtual reality
XML extensive mark-up language
FOREWORD
Business leaders know that today’s fast-accelerating changes in technology, longevity, work practices, and business models offer both challenges and opportunities. While some jobs are disappearing due to advances in technology, many more are being transformed and thus creating the need for continuous, lifelong development. In response to this evolving landscape, Learning and Development (L&D) professionals are prioritising strategic imperatives such as transitioning to the future of work, the redesign of work and jobs, and reskilling the workforce to support the ongoing evolution of organisations.
It is imperative that L&D professionals shift their focus from the dominant paradigms that the profession has relied on for the past 50 years and examine more contemporary ways in which to improve their practice as professionals. The reality is that the future has started. We need to invest in breakthrough thinking and innovation to sustain success and face up to the challenges of the new business, customer and market paradigms. Encouraging an organisation’s workforce to learn and to change and adapt to the needs of the organisation is now more important than ever in order to respond to the requirements of the workplace of the future. L&D professionals have a major role to play in helping organisations to ensure that they have a workforce that is capable of adapting to those changing requirements.
Accordingly, as the leading professional body for L&D professionals in Ireland, the Irish Institute of Training and Development (IITD) commissioned LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS: STRATEGY, EVIDENCE and PRACTICE to reflect the changing landscape of L&D. Our intent in commissioning this book was to support L&D professionals by sharing the most up-to-date thinking to assist them in the development of capability throughout their organisations. The book aims to develop L&D professionals so that they deliver impactful learning interventions that develop staff by thinking innovatively about how work is organised and ensuring the best alignment of people and technology with the right opportunities within their organisations. It considers both formal and informal learning and looks at the contribution of the L&D function to organisational and financial performance. Reflecting the latest thinking in the field of L&D, it provides a theoretically-sound text written with the user in mind, whether that user is a practitioner or a student. Included in each chapter, to help the reader to relate the text to practical application, are case studies that show the theory in action. Critically, the book looks at the future of L&D and the competencies that are required into the future as well as examining ethical considerations in the field of L&D.
We at IITD are very pleased to be associated with this book and would like to extend our sincere thanks to all who have been involved in producing such an up-to-date, reader-friendly book which is aimed at all those who work in, or indeed have an interest, in the area of L&D. In particular, we applaud the work of Professor Thomas Garavan in conducting the research that underpins the book and also would like to thank all the member companies of IITD and other L&D professionals who participated in the research.
We believe that LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT in ORGANISATIONS: STRATEGY, EVIDENCE and PRACTICE will set the agenda for L&D professionals in the future. We hope that you will find it an invaluable resource.
Sinead Heneghan CEO, IITD