Hans Berner, Rudolf Isler, Wiltrud Weidinger

Simply good learning

ISBN Print: 978-3-0355-1957-0

ISBN E-Book: 978-3-0355-1958-7

1. Edition 2022

All rights reserved.

© 2022 hep Verlag AG, Bern

hep-verlag.com

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction

1. Self-efficacy and self-concept

« For me, learning means slowdown, repetition, abrasion, comprehension, happiness» Stephan Eicher

2. Self-regulation and rules

«My secret learning trick so far: do it for yourself and not for others » Lisa Christ

3. Attentiveness and concentration

«For me, learning means to find my way through what I have experienced, read and practiced » Stephanie von Orelli

4. Topics and learning contents

« For me, learning means an effort that is paying off in every way and never ends » Pedro Lenz

5. Curiosity and interest

« Learning is discovering » Roger de Weck

6. Motivation und suggestion

« I encourage myself to get it done » Malina Meister

7. Learning climate and school atmosphere

« To be able to learn well requires calm, concentration, will, a positive attitude, and a supportive environment » Urs Fischer

8. Learning rooms and spatial design

« For me, learning means learning not just according to rules and structures but integrating what I have learned into daily life » Kacem El Ghazzali

9. Participation and responsibility

«For me, learning means to further develop oneself and to become a better human being» Nicola Spirig

10. Our conclusion. Our message.

« For me, learning means discovering new things, comprehending connections, becoming independent » Lena-Lisa Wüstendörfer

Bibliography

List of illustrations

INTRODUCTION

The title «Simply Good Learning» invokes totally different associations. Some people think spontaneously about learning tips in the style of «take enough breaks» or «find out your learning type». Others may think about instant-relief recipes such as «learning quickly, easily, and simply» as flamboyantly promoted by a «rhetoric event of superlatives»–, coupled with a fabulous promise to make «opinion-leaders out of people».[1] In response to an always favorite question such as «Is it good if I always learn with music?» the internet offers diverse replies with entirely concrete tips, such as «Metallica or German rap is taboo, because it either agitates you too much or the texts distract you, classical music or chill-out is good»[2]. In a blog for mothers concerning an experiment with sixth graders, one can find the suggestion that perfume sticks with rose scent are helpful for learning. Additionally, it quotes a simple (in the sense of banal) recipe by a teaching and learning researcher: «sources of interference, such as a beeping smart phone on the desk should be turned off.»[3]

In this publication, we aim at something quite different. We are convinced that the writer Pedro Lenz is entirely correct in his assessment of learning strategies: «There are no secret tricks and no shortcuts. The essentials are motivation, repetition and repetition again».[4] In this book, we want to show in a differentiated way how teachers can effectively and sustainably support their students in their learning. If children and adolescents actually succeed in organizing their learning productively, when they feel good and secure while learning and are able to increasingly accept the responsibility for their educational development, they have acquired an invaluable foundation for their entire life. In the following, we will demonstrate the most important conditions to that end. Both prospective and experienced teachers will find in this book theory-based analyses as well as assignments and examples for consideration and to develop further in their own practice for a pedagogy that places the well-being and progress of the learners at the center. Interested parents can find out as well how they can support their children while learning. Particular attention is being paid to the significant changes affecting school learning as a consequence of increased digitalization.

What is required to be able to learn well?

In the interrelated chapters 1 to 9, we present the crucial aspects for productive learning in an experiential, theory-based and practice-oriented way. For learning to succeed requires, besides the main actors teachers and students, the support of parents and family, as well as a commitment by society and culture.

The individual chapters are framed by personal statements about the topic of learning by personalities from various areas of the public sphere. These pointed, creative and unexpected statements are based on personal life experiences from areas like sport or culture and they open up new vistas on the fascinating field of learning.

In the closing chapter 10 Our conclusion. Our message, we will be outlining from our view the importance of the four broad influence factors students, teachers, parents, and society in form of personal statements for your further consideration and submit them for discussion.

How are the chapters structured?

The chapters 1 to 9 have the same structure and actively include you as reader. Within the individual chapters, you are invited in a first step to consider your own educational experiences or current questions concerning a particular topic. You should record your experiences and insights and discuss them with your colleagues. In a second step, you will learn key aspects of current theoretical insights and the most important information in a compact form. General implementation proposals are comprised in a third step, followed by exercises and practical examples in a fourth step.

This is your first assignment

The reflections on one’s personal learning adventures and learning experiences play an important role in this book. The physicist, naturalist, mathematician, and writer Georg Christoph Lichtenberg was correct, in our opinion, when around 250 years ago, he wrote: «The overly rapid growth of knowledge, which is obtained with too little of one’s own doing, is not very fruitful. What one has to invent by oneself, leaves tracks in the mind, which can also be used on another occasion.»[5]

It is therefore well worth if you take your time to complete the following statements – just as the ten personalities from public life are doing in this book.

• Learning means for me …

• My most beautiful learning experience as a child …

• My most beautiful learning experience as an adult …

• «An old saw runs somewhat so: Man must learn while here below», so says Max and Moritz by Wilhelm Busch. What is it?

• In order to be able to learn well …

• My best learning tips …

• My secret learning trick so far …

• What I absolutely still want to learn …

Our approach, our thanks, our learning process

As in our first joint book «Simply good teaching» we have risen to the challenge of writing and creating a book that reaches as many readers as possible with well thought-out exercises, conveying subject-conform scientific findings and maintaining suspense. We have selected on the basis of our rich treasure of experience what we consider the most appropriate content and exercises from the respective subject areas from our activities on various academic levels in schools and universities. Of vital importance was our close collective work method as authors with a regular face-to-face exchange at eye level – akin to a ping pong game. Furthermore, in time of the Corona crisis, we have learned to efficiently use and appreciate electronic exchange possibilities.

Many people have provided important contributions to the creation of this book. To all of you, we would like to express our heartfelt thanks. We would like to highlight especially Peter Egger from the hep-Verlag, who amicably encouraged us to undertake this follow-up book, as well as Christian de Simoni as reliable and competent direct contact person for all our concerns. A very special thank you goes to all personalities who, with their very personal statements, expanded our view of learning in an exciting manner. Their enthusiastic consent elated us as much as their fascinating responses. Furthermore, we thank our long-standing colleague Donat Bräm for his creative-artistic and photographic support.

Stephan Eicher succeeded in bringing our learning processes in writing and discussing on a marvellously formulated common denominator: slowdown, repetition, abrasion, comprehension, luck.

We would be delighted, dear readers, if you were to have similar experiences when reading and discussing these matters.

Bibliography

[1] Matthias Pöhm: Das Rhetorik-Seminar (The rhetoric seminar), online: http://www.rhetorik-seminar-online.com/gratis-nutzen-fur-sie/lernen-einfach-gemacht/ [14.11.2020]

[2] Martin Krengel: Lerntipps für Prüfungen (Learning tips for tests), online: https://www.studienstrategie.de/lernen/lerntipps-fuer-pruefungen-wie-lernen-studenten-und-schueler-am-besten/ [14.11.2020]

[3] Tages-Anzeiger: Die besten Lerntricks für Kinder (The best learning tricks for children), Mamablog, online; https://www.tagesanzeiger.ch/die-besten-lerntricks-fuer-kinder-853852526317 [14.11.2020]

[4] Aus dem Beitrag von Pedro Lenz in diesem Buch: «Lernen bedeutet für mich Anstrengung, die sich in jedem Fall lohnt und ein Prozess, der nie abgeschlossen ist.» (From the contribution by Pedro Lenz in this book : «Learning for me means an effort that is paying off in every way and a process that never ends.»

[5] Lichtenberg: Schriften und Briefe. (Writings and letters) Vol. 1: Sudelbücher I. 1994, p. 196.

SELF-EFFICACY AND SELF-CONCEPT

We all know from our daily experience that self-confidence plays a decisive role for us human beings in almost all situations in life. When we feel secure, we go through life more optimistically. What comes our way seems easier to deal with. Thus, we have more courage to try something new, to risk something, to give our life a new direction or to tackle something for that we have great respect.

It is therefore not surprising that there are a huge number of advisors for this topic[1] and that the internet is full of well-meaning advice: «Building self-confidence: 20 power tips for daily life» or «108 tips for a strong self-confidence» are just two of them. As problematic and simplifying these instructions often are, they clearly reflect the importance of the subject – a subject that is of greatest importance, especially for learning.

We are going to approach the question of how one builds self-confidence by way of the psychological concepts of self-efficacy and self-concept. Thus, on the one hand, we are on solid evidence-based ground and can create the necessary difference. On the other hand, we move about in an area of concepts that deliver comprehensible suggestions for pedagogy to further what is colloquially called self-confidence.

We are going to point out societal and didactic developments in this chapter that pose entirely new challenges for children and adolescents – challenges that students can better master with a stable self-efficacy and a positive self-concept. Self-efficacy and self-concept are fundamental for academic learning, professional growth, well-being in our time.

1 What does self-efficacy mean and how can it be furthered?

The concept of self-efficacy – or more precisely self-efficacy belief – still seemed rather cumbersome a few years ago, but has since been incorporated in the pedagogical vocabulary as more and more obvious. It originated from Albert Bandura’s[2] social-cognitive learning theory and is so clearly stated that unambiguous evidence can be derived about how students can be supported in their learning. Although almost all psychological trends and pedagogical approaches have dealt in some fashion with the background of the everyday term «self-confidence» and thereby developed their own terminology – competence conviction – ego strength – self-awareness, self-esteem, and many more. However, the access to Bandura is, in our opinion, the most helpful for pedagogy.

In an often-cited formula, Bandura summarizes what makes self-efficacy so important: «Motivation, feelings, and actions of human beings result to a larger extent from what they believe in or are convinced of, and to a lesser extent to what is objectively the case.[3]» It is therefore the belief in one’s own abilities that is of vital importance. Self-efficacy is consequently defined as subjective certainty to be able to master new or more difficult challenging situations based on one’s own competence. It is not a matter of tasks or problems, that can be routinely solved – such as riding a bicycle –, but rather about those whose degree of difficulty, which requires the investment of effort and endurance.[4]

How self-efficient the students consider themselves can be seen by means of questionnaire that appears rather simple but whose analysis serves primarily as a basis for conversations with students (see exercises and examples). But we can also get a picture through observation. Certain postures of children indicate a high degree of self-efficacy; for example great endurance, a great willingness to work hard, an effective time management, a certain flexibility in problem-solving, a realistic assessment of one’s own performance or self-esteem conducive attributions of causes. It has not been thoroughly researched how to explain the differences in children’s self-efficacy beliefs. Even though family background has an eminent influence on children’s self-efficacy, teachers can support the students in the classroom. In principle, there are four ways to strengthen self-efficacy:[5]

• One’s own personal or competence experiences are the most powerful. If adolescents succeed in solving problems and achieve learning successes on their own, they feel self-effective. Psychologically, every increase in power is the result of overcoming difficulties.[6] In so doing, teachers should not leave the students alone but at the same time demand from them to overcome difficulties themselves – following the basic idea of Montessori pedagogy: «Help me to do it myself.» When children have overcome an obstacle, we should let them know what they have achieved. This means that we closely observe them and follow their learning.

• The second most powerful sources of self-efficacy are – contrary to pedagogical intuition – models that show that something is possible. When students notice, and are made aware of by the teachers, that others have succeeded in this and that as well, chances are high that they develop an optimism to also take on similar challenges.

• Verbal persuasion attempts are perhaps wrongly more common in pedagogical practice than the first two examples. Verbal encouragement is effective as well, but to a lesser extent than the experience of competency and models. Moreover, it is not always easy to find the right encouraging words: «You can do it, it is quite simple!» could certainly also have a discouraging effect, particularly when the child fails to solve the problem.

• Finally, self-efficacy is associated with emotional states. A person who is in a good mood and experiences positive emotions at a given time feels more self-effective. This indicates that it is important that teachers keep an eye on the emotional state of each and every child.[7]

Students with lower self-efficacy beliefs tend to improperly deal with successes and failures. They view the root cause for failures in the inadequacy of their own person, attributing it as internal, and ascribing successes to other circumstances, attributing them as external.[8] In order to strengthen self-efficacy, it is important that students learn to recognize that a good grade is the result of their learning efforts and that an examination situation is controllable and not left to chance. As attribution processes are closely related to motivation, the question will be further explored in chapter 6 Motivation and stimulation.

Furthermore, it is relevant for the practice to distinguish between general and specific self-efficacy.[9] Someone who dares to cultivate his social contacts may not necessarily have the confidence to find solutions for geometry problems. However, many examples show: when in a specific area where a person’s self-efficacy is rather low and success is achieved, this success expands over other areas.[10] That is why it is important not only to strengthen strengths with students but also to weaken weaknesses. This means: adolescents should certainly be supported in their learning in that one begins with their strengths. However, equally important are experiences in a subject area where one lacks the confidence to improve; indeed to become good at it. If that succeeds, more certainty has been gained for one’s entire life.

2 How important is the self-concept of children and adolescents for their learning?

The self-concept is somewhat more difficult to grasp than self-efficacy because the term is used in different ways in entirely different theoretical contexts. As a common denominator can be considered that the self-concept responds to the question «Who am I?», and implies the way we think about ourselves – about our abilities, our social relationships, and about our corporeality.[11] It is therefore a question of the knowledge and the convictions that a human being generally has of himself. In contrast, the complementary concepts «self-worth» or «self-esteem» stand for feelings that one experiences toward oneself and for the affective judgments about one’s own worth.[12] Since «self-concept» as well as the partial term «self» and related terms such as identity are rooted in various disciplines – sociology, philosophy, psychotherapy schools – the term cannot be entirely and distinctively determined.

Despite these conceptual difficulties, these interpretations of self-concept have yielded helpful hints for learning:

• Mostly kindergartners, but even primary school children, tend to have a overly optimistic self-concept concerning their abilities and assess themselves as better than they are. With increasing age, they normally become more realistic. A lack of correspondence with reality is problematic in the long term, because it leads to differences between self-image and external image. Pedagogically it is useful to further this accordance – but not to force it – as an imprudent confrontation with reality entails the risk of resulting in resignation and discouragement.

• In the discussion of the self-concept, several aspects are differentiated. Most importantly, the self-capability concept that – in various school subjects – deserves pedagogical attention. In contrast with self-efficacy, which is prospectively oriented, the self-concept is more accounting. The important thing is that in terms of the capability concept the students not only see what they cannot do but also what they can do.

• Here, the environment plays an important role, as the capability concept develops partially in comparison with other children. It is particularly important to consider what Herbert Marsh described as the «big fish in small pond» effect,^13,14: Those who find themselves in an environment of weaker students feel stronger and more motivated to learn, and vice versa. Especially in transitions, for example, from primary school to high school, it is important to note that the new environment can lead many high-performing students to doubt their own self-concept.

• Moreover, it is still the case that, on average, boys have a better capability concept in the areas of math and sports, whereas girls do so in the areas of languages and music – which does not directly correspond with the actual performances.[15] With girls, the capability concepts begin to lower from about the third school year on – somewhat faster than what also occurs with boys. Furthermore, girls appear to be significantly more influenced by group-dynamic factors. Wanting to belong to a group may result in girls’ more poorly assessing themselves. This should be considered in dealing with girls.

• An attempt to define the «self-concept» resulted in the hierarchically structured model by Shavelson.[16] It draws attention to a balanced self-concept. His empirical evaluations of the school self-concept later led to a clear difference between a generally mathematical and a generally linguistic self-concept.[17]

Shavelson’s approach points out that especially during puberty it is necessary to consider the entire development of young people and to support the adolescents not only in terms of their school concept but also non-school aspects. Problematic self-assessments in social, emotional and physical aspects have negative repercussions on the global self-concept, which in turn affects the school self-concept.

• Thus, pedagogical measures to strengthen self-esteem in late childhood and early adolescence are particularly needed, as evidenced by insights about developmental progress. Even if there is no precise accordance between self-concept and esteem, a trend to mutual influence has been proven. Adolescents with low self-esteem also evidence uncertainties in the self-concept.[18] The simultaneous promotion of a positive self-concept and a high self-esteem thus appears advisable.

• Information-theoretical approaches, such as that by Sigrun-Heide Filipp, posit that adolescents construct the knowledge about their person by themselves. This occurs in an ongoing cognitive processing of predicate attributions by others and by their own predicate self-attributions: Every child perceives how other people address him or her verbally and, at least equally important, non-verbally and begins to define himself/herself with increasing age through comparison and reflection.[19] The acquired self-concept is actualized in action situations. In so doing, the three-fold focus that this model suggests for the promotion of a positive self-concept is pedagogically helpful: external influences, comparison, and self-reflection.

How a positive and realistic self-concept can be furthered cannot be answered as clearly as is possible for the strengthening of self-efficacy. In any case, there are no simple techniques. The task is too global. It is connected with the entire development of adolescents. Surely, certain instruments, as mentioned in chapter 2, Self-regulation and rules, are helpful in connection with regulated school learning conditions, for example PFADE (paths), which focuses on students of both genders getting to better know one another. A pedagogically interesting, groundbreaking suggestion has also been offered by the Stanford psychologist Carol Dweck.

3 A dynamic self-image as a goal – a promise for openness to the future

In her highly regarded book Mindset, Dweck writes: «Whether human qualities are things that can be cultivated or things that are carved in stone is an old issue. What these beliefs mean for you is a new one: What are the consequences of thinking that your intelligence or personality is something you can develop, as opposed to something that is a fixed, deep-seated trait?»[20]

According to Dweck’s terminology, a static self-image assumes that human beings receive their qualities at birth, like a poker card that is being dealt and remains as it is. On the other hand, a dynamic self-image assumes «that your basic qualities are things you can cultivate through your efforts».[21] Dweck does not postulate that everyone can achieve everything, but insists that one cannot predict from the beginning what a person is able to achieve in life through passion, practice and effort.

According to Dweck, students with a static or dynamic self-image differ in almost all areas that are important for learning. The following examples illustrate a few opposing aspects:

Critics of Carol Dweck’s work maintain that her research is not replicable and that her opinions lack a broad empirical basis. However, this criticism has not been raised in established publications and, moreover, not proved beyond all doubt.[22] We believe that Dweck’s approach is highly useful for the pedagogical task of furthering an optimistic self-concept and good self-efficacy among adolescents. Students with a dynamic self-image will be better able to develop positively in this respect.

4 Which children are at risk, where are the dangers, and what can we do?

As a first indication of which children may be at risk in terms of self-concept and self-efficacy, the following groundbreaking findings of the 16th Shell youth study may be helpful.

Although the de facto marginalization of the socio-economically weakest members of society as shown in the figure includes many aspects, it still points to deficits in the areas of self-concept and self-efficacy. The individual psychologist Martin Schürz confirms the connection under the heading «The return of the social question».[23] Children from lower social strata with risk of poverty – mostly from single-parent families and families with several children – with low educational attainment by the parents, have not only objectively poorer starting conditions. What is more important, according to Schürz: «They lack the confidence in their abilities».

Strengthening the self-efficacy of children at risk is a difficult task for teachers. Matthias Jerusalem has shown that they are enormously more susceptible to become unsettled by failures than children with stable self-efficacy. Therefore, it requires great sensibility and insight into human nature,

• to challenge them and make demands on the one hand, so that they can make genuine efforts and achieve successes,

• on the other hand, not to expose them to too many failures, as they become unsettled right away.

Moreover, problematic self-concepts – deficient conformity between reality and self-concept, no awareness of one’s own strengths, a static self-image, poor self-esteem – are more likely to affect children with socially difficult starting conditions. Since the area of self-concepts deals with entirely global development issues, comprehensive approaches are needed to effect support. First, it is a matter of establishing trust and a sustainable relationship between teacher and students. Based on a trusting relationship, regular conversations about the above-mentioned aspects of self-concept can be highly effective.

Of special interest is the fact that there are again and again children and adolescents who develop well in spite of poor starting conditions. The phenomenon, called resilience, has been broadly discussed for some time. Remo Largo has recently voiced very helpful comments in that respect, referencing the source of the concept as attributed to Emmy Werner in the 1950s. In her long-term research on an Hawaiian island, Werner found that one-third of the children with poor starting conditions had come quite well through life.[24] Largo stressed that this third was comprised of «attractive» children, that is children who, in some way – through invested abilities, appearance, appealing social ways, etc. – had something about them that among their parents, as well as teachers and carers elicited a more attentive and personal attitude.[25] As a consequence, teachers could be helpful to socially disadvantaged children if they succeed in discovering the «attractive» aspects of these children that allow them to find a positive approach to them.

5 Is a glance at our own culture and other cultures helpful?

The HBSC studies (Health Behavior in School-aged Children) conducted by the WHO inquire about different aspects of health-related and lifestyle behavior of school children in 50 countries. The study conducted in 2018 showed the following results for Switzerland, among others:[26]

• 52.9 percent of the 14- to 15-year-old boys and 30.6 percent of the same-age girls are satisfied with their appearance.

• 35.9 percent of the 14- to 15-year-old boys and 17.6 percent of the same-age girls wish to be more muscular.

• 15.5 percent of the 14- to 15-year-old boys and 32.4 percent of the same-age girls wish to have less body fat.

On the one hand, these figures show clear gender-specific differences in terms of body self-concept, more significantly than the above-mentioned differences in terms of ability self-concept. The girls’ generally less stable self-concept concerning their bodies requires pedagogical responses: empathetic conversations with female teachers, gymnastic instruction conducive to a good body image, etc. On the other hand, it becomes clear what Lohaus and Vierhaus pointed out in their standard work about developmental psychology: The more negative self-image of girls can be explained by the assumption of a gender role identity that is oriented toward societal beauty ideals.[27]

Fundamentally, a look at the social environment in which we grow up and the cultural idiosyncrasies that we encounter can provide extremely valuable suggestions and questions to be considered for working with adolescents and the assistance that we can offer them for strengthening their self-efficacy and building a positive self-concept:

• In his article Dealing with defeats – a question of culture[28] Claus Schreier compares how people deal with defeat in Switzerland and in the US. Americans are used to get up again and in a certain way «pull themselves up by their bootstraps», whereas faultlessness, safeguarding, glossing over, and justifying are highly popular among their Swiss counterparts. By contrast, failure is considered negative. Although critical distance is advisable, it is worth asking whether in terms of continuing to study after failures the American culture could be an inspiration and encouragement.

• In the article Entitlements? Obligations![29] Urs Schoettli states that in the western industrialized societies a mentality of demands and entitlement play a more dominant role, whereas values like duty and harmony are paramount in Asian countries. Obligation becomes a push factor for effort and self-efficacy, and compelled harmony ensures that this duty is not violated. Additionally, there are framework conditions for learning, like attentiveness and assiduousness. The advancement in societies shaped by Confucian values as well as the success of their learners are related to these cultural values. There are certainly justified objections to the Asian way. No one here would contemplate to follow it blindly. However, the concept could inspire some thought in terms of what kind of alternative interaction might be useful in dealing with adolescents and their flippant attitude concerning the educational challenges in school.

• In the article The Vietnamese wonder[30] Martin Spiewak points out that the children of Vietnamese migrant workers in Eastern Germany – at first glance totally surprisingly – in the two decades after the German reunification achieved outstanding school performance. This was despite the fact that their background largely resembled what one imagines by the phrase children with a migration background: «Their parents worked in unskilled jobs, frequently 60 hours per week, or they had a small business, e.g., a sort of a mobile restaurant, and were busy well into the night. The children had to help in part. They often lived in cramped conditions, mostly in Vietnamese enclaves where no Germans lived – they constituted small Vietnamese parallel societies. The parents generally spoke broken German and their apartments were mostly devoid of books.»[31] When questioned why their children were nonetheless performing so well, a father responded, «because all Vietnamese parents want their children to do well in school!» Trite as the answer may sound, it perfectly captures what can be understood as the power of culture.

Cultural influences cannot be readily pedagogically overridden. At the same time, their consideration can create understanding and inspiration. Up to now, we know too little about intercultural and comparative pedagogy. We understand too little about how the cultural influence of young people who come to our schools, having fled emergencies in countries like Afghanistan, Syria or the Caribbean, affects their self-concept, their self-efficacy and their learning. The same holds true for children – especially boys – from the Balkans, Turkey or from Portugal who have been achieving less school success in the last three decades relative to the majority population.[32] Teachers and scientists are confronted with an important challenge here. Overall, a glance at other cultures should lastly lead to giving no room to discrimination and racism.

6 Why do self-concept and self-efficacy become more important for learning?

Societal change in the past decades has moved the issue of self-efficacy and self-concept decidedly and irrefutably at the centre of support for learners. There are three salient issues to consider:

1. Digitalization as technological progress initiated the development with far-reaching consequences:

Jöran Muuss-Merholz, a specialist for online learning and proponent of a new online education, notes that the topic of digitalization was ignored for a long time and that what we now see is not just «hype but rather downright hysteria for digitalization of the school».[33] Unfortunately, not everything is as new as it may appear, and merely two areas would be modernized with digital media: Input with visualization and exercises with feedback. In so doing, a future-oriented digital pedagogy must entail more, according to Muuss-Merholz, namely a new dimension of education, including

a. knowledge,

b. skills (e.g., critical thinking, creativity),

c. character (e.g. attentiveness, resilience, inquisitiveness),

d. meta-learning.

In discussing the methodical implementation, Muuss-Merholz references remarkably often self-organized learning, learners who are expected to assume «an active and self-determined role», empowerment of learners «who take charge of their own learning».[34] Even when the digitalization of learning is not as radically linked with school reform as proposed by many exponents of digital education, it is undoubtedly true that independent learning will become increasingly important.

2. Societal individualization and singularization as a frequently validated sociological diagnosis of our time:

In his broadly received publication «The society of singularization»,[35] Andreas Reckwitz describes digitalization as a comprehensive singularization that occurs in the late modern era in the highly industrialized societies. Following the sociological analyses of the last forty years by Ulrich Beck, Anthony Giddens, Zygmunt Bauman or Richard Sennett, Reckwitz concludes that a new middle class with a «singularized lifestyle» has developed. This middle class comprises about one third of the population. Its lifestyle is dominant and emanates in all other parts of society: It is a matter of «authenticity, self-actualization, cultural openness, diversity, quality of life, and creativity».[36] There is a tendency toward a life in which all individuals must succeed of their own strength, as there are no lifestyle guidelines. Moreover, traditional ties to social class, stratum, occupation, family, church, trade union, neighborhood, which in classical modern times have sustained the individual, are gradually weakened. What remains is societally forced self-reference, an unavoidable task for everyone to construct their own biography and to become the center of their own life.[37]

3. Independent learning as a didactic megatrend:

Digitalization and to an even much greater extent societal singularization and individualization have enormously and powerfully accelerated the trend to independent, self-responsible and self-organized learning (see chapter 9). Learning in learning landscapes, studios, project learning, projects, and many more forms are closely related to the phenomenon. This orientation has been strengthened since the beginning of the Covid pandemic. A recently-concluded survey of teachers during the first phase of online learning resulted in a 67 percent approval of the statement: «I will assign the students more responsibility for their own learning process.»[38]

Digitalization, singularization and autonomous learning demand a high degree of self-efficacy, a stable, positive self-concept, and a dynamic self-image from young people.

7 Self, self, self – and where is the we?

The more individuals are on their own, the more the community is needed as a complement. The more digital learning takes place, the more important the analogue, the relationship between people – between female and male students and between them and the teachers.

Cultivating interpersonal relationships, giving space to relationships in everyday school life, trust-building, celebrating festivals and school events, allowing for uniting experiences – all this must be of the greatest importance especially in a time of increasing digitalization and individualization. Supporting the adolescents in these aforementioned areas is only possible based on relationships and mutual trust.

Thus, as self-efficacy researchers have pointed out, cooperative learning and a positive classroom and instructional climate present appropriate framework conditions to promote self-efficacy.[39] Moreover, there have been thoughts about whether schools should not also strive for a collective self-efficacy.[40]

1 Make high demands

That students should neither be overburdened nor underchallenged, is a commonplace truth for many teachers. Nevertheless, we know that for successful learning to take place, high, positive expectations by teachers and parents are crucially important.[41] A slightly overchallenging attitude is in any case preferable to underchallenging: underchallenging implies: «I don’t expect that you can achieve much!»

This was expressed clearly by the Russian reform pedagogue Makarenko. His message remains a source for any learning guidance and support despite – or perhaps precisely because of its conciseness: «My rationale […] always was: the highest possible demands of a person, but simultaneously the highest possible regard for him. In our view, this is basically one and the same. We cannot demand the utmost of a human being whom we don’t respect.»[42]

When students experience the expectation that they should overcome difficulties on their own, it will help them. Thus, they will utilize the strongest source of self-efficacy: the experience of success.

2 Let students review their life

The psychologist Franz Petermann has proposed as a helpful attribution for strengthening self-efficacy the procedure «life in the rearview».[43] In reviewing the positive outcome of past learning situations, students develop the confidence to succeed in future situations as well. This occurs by way of

• joint review of difficult learning situations that were successfully mastered in the past

• admitting pride based on «nevertheless» successes, successes that were not necessarily anticipated

In so doing, the teacher can ask questions such as:

• How were you able to accomplish this assignment, which almost exceeded your strengths?

• If you think about this past learning situation, what is still helpful to you today in overcoming a learning crisis?

3 Help the students to succeed in a learning-supportive manner

Spend a lot of time to show the students what they have learned, what they are now capable of and what they could not do previously. Do this very frequently and ritually.

• Even the reform pedagogues attached value to this, as is evident from the following declaration by Alfons Simon at a time when school was still in session on Saturdays: «No lesson is ended without the last question: What have we achieved? We never go home before spending two or three minutes on this reflection. […] The entire Saturday lessons serve for this very same purpose.»[44]

• Place two notebooks of a pupil side by side, one from the middle of the first grade and one from the middle of the third grade. Show how much more beautifully and correctly they write. Make it clear that this progress occurred through learning and practice.

• Compile with your students a so-called can-do book for a certain subject (math, sports, etc.) in which they record everything that they can do now through learning and practicing.

Look for other possibilities to show students what they have learned. This way they learn to recognize their progress and to connect it with their own efforts.

4 Work toward a slight overestimation of competence beliefs

In a research project about competence beliefs at the Zurich University of Teacher Education, Alex Buff and Iris Dinkelmann documented that competence beliefs alone are no guarantee for good learning, but a slight overestimation of one’s competences is ideal for learning.[45]

It seems therefore right that teachers support and aim to encourage a realistic, but rather positively-tinted self-assessment in their students. Learners who slightly overestimate themselves should under no circumstances be brought «back to earthbound reality».

5 Consider carefully: How, when and for what do you want to praise – and encourage?

The American psychologist Alfie Kohn received a great deal of attention with his book Love and Independence[46], not least because he posits that praise should be entirely avoided in education. For him, praise shifts the interest in something to elicit more praise. It manipulates and renders children and adolescents addicted to praise. Praise is doubly harmful: it causes extrinsic incentives and diminishes intrinsic motivation. It tells children that they mean a great deal to us when they do what we expect.

Even though Kohn’s approach is somewhat radical – it seems rather unnatural to live in close, cordial relations without spontaneously expressing praise and recognition for actions of one’s counterpart – he does nevertheless raise awareness about dealing more deliberately with praise and to self-monitor how, when, and for what we praise.

What is important:

• To praise for effort, not for the ability: «You have made a good effort! » and not: «You are so good at math!»

• Praise efforts, even though they may not have led to the desired outcome (the correct solution)

• Do not permanently praise and for trifles, too frequent praise devalues itself

• Refrain from praise when there is little evidence of commitment and effort

• Issue praise for initiative, creativity, independence, effort rather for correct, appropriate, expected behavior

The same applies to encouragement:

• Encourage efforts to tackle assignments and seek solutions: «Try it, if it doesn’t work, I'll help you!» and not «That’s very simple, you can do it!»

• Encourage students to seek help and discuss and exchange information about possible solutions with colleagues.

• Encourage students to keep it up, to keep trying, to always practise, etc.

Praise, as well as encouragement, can contribute to the strengthening of self-efficacy and to a positively tinted self-concept. However, they are scarcely effective if they merely consist of an expression of communicative technique and not a genuine assessment. To explain the connection with motivation, the question will be briefly revisited in chapter 6 Motivation and stimulation.

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